Where can I Find Medical Definitions?

Medicine is a discipline that deals with various diseases or lesions of life through scientific or technical means, and promotes the recovery of patients' health. It is an applied discipline of biology, divided into basic medicine and clinical medicine. Advanced sciences dealing with human diseases from the level of physiological anatomy, molecular genetics, and biochemical physics. It is a systematic discipline from prevention to treatment of diseases. Its research fields include basic medicine, clinical medicine, forensic medicine, laboratory medicine, preventive medicine, health medicine, and rehabilitation medicine.

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Medicine is the treatment of various aspects of life through scientific or technical means

Eastern and Western cultural and historical background is the soil for the formation and development of Chinese and Western medicine. Zhang Zhongjing, two medical masters of the East and the West in the 2nd century AD

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Ancient Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine in China originated during the period of the three emperors and five emperors. According to legend, Fu Xi invented acupuncture and tried herbs. In more than 3,000 BC, the Chinese Emperor Xuanyuan Huangdi wrote the first medical work of mankind "Zhu Youke". The later generations continued to add and delete on the basis of this medical work, and gradually formed the later Huangdi Neijing And "The Yellow Emperor's Foreign Classic", and Yu Youkeli separated the pure medicine, and formed the later Chinese medicine. Among them, the Yellow Emperor's Canon of Medicine is the first in the world to propose the concept of "preventing disease but not treating disease" as a preventive medicine for health prevention and health protection. ^[1]

The first hospital and medical system in the world was established as early as the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-771 BC). The medical institutions of the Zhou Dynasty had physicians, sergeants, corporals, government offices (managers), and history. (Management records), only a few people. The following are divided into four categories: food doctor (management of food and health library), disease doctor (internal medicine), ulcer doctor (surgery), and veterinary medicine. This is the earliest medical branch in the world.

Physicians are in charge of medical administration and evaluate doctors at the end of the year; "Zhou Li" records that "when the winter is over, the food is eaten", that is, doctors must pass the year-end assessment every year to increase or decrease their health. At that time, the patients had been treated separately and a medical record was established. "The end of the death is the reason why each book is entered into the physician", stipulating that the cause of death should be written on the medical record of the deceased, and then sent to the physician for archiving in order to summarize medical experience and improve medical technology. This is also the earliest medical record system in the world.

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (770 BC-221 BC), famous doctors emerged, Qin state-owned doctors slowed down, Qi State Chang Sang and his apprentice Bian Yan. Bian Kun invented the unique dialectical treatment of TCM and summarized it as the "four diagnosis" method, namely "look, smell, ask, and cut". There is a "six incurable" principle for Bian Kun to see a doctor and practice medicine: one is to rely on his power to kill the arrogant; the other is to cope with money, regardless of his life; the third is to overeating, the person with impermanence of eating is not cured; the fourth is to seek treatment without getting too early The healer is dead; the fifth is the frail person who cannot take the medicine; the sixth is the person who believes in witchcraft but does not believe the healer. Later generations respected him as a divine doctor. The main medical works popular during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period included the Yellow Emperor's Internal Canon, the Yellow Emperor's External Canon, the Bian Dai Internal Canon, the Bian Dai External Canon, the Bai Family Internal Canon, the Bai Family External Canon, and the Side Articles. These seven books are synthesized into the Seven Classics.

In the Qin Dynasty (221 BC-207 BC), the world's earliest specialized forensic doctor-"Lingshi" appeared. Qin law stipulates that, in cases where the cause of death is unknown, a corpse examination is required in principle, and justice officials will be punished if they fail to perform the inspection. The Qin Dynasty's "Finally Examined" has a more detailed record of forensic methods and procedures. In human life cases, the main contents of the identification test include the position of the corpse, the location of the trauma, the number, direction, and size. After the Lingshi inspection is completed, a written report, called the "Eunuch Book", must be submitted, which is the world's earliest forensic evaluation and site investigation report.

The Qin Dynasty also established the first infectious disease hospital in the world, the "Qi Qiang Institute," and formulated the earliest isolation system for treating infectious diseases. According to Qin Jian, unearthed in Yunmenghuhu, Hubei Province in 1975, it was stipulated at the time that all patients who had symptoms such as collapse of the nasal bridge, no sweat on hands, hoarseness, and irritation of the nasal cavity without sneezing after being examined by a doctor were sent to Isolation treatment at the relocation office. This shows that the treatment of infectious diseases in ancient China has been effective and effective for a long time.

By the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD), the theory of yin-yang and five elements of traditional Chinese medicine was very complete, and the famous doctors were Taicang Gongchun Yuyi and Public Transport Yangqing.

In the Eastern Han Dynasty, famous medical scientists Zhang Zhongjing and Hua Yan appeared. Zhang Zhongjing perfected the dialectical theory of traditional Chinese medicine. He was also the first master of clinical medicine in the world, and he was respected as a medical sage. He has authored medical books such as Treatise on Febrile Diseases, Therapeutic Woman's Formula, Huang Sufang, Oral Tooth, and Ping Yifang, etc. The medical books that were eventually passed down were compiled by future generations as Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases And "Golden Summaries".

Zhang Zhongjing adopted the basic principles of dialectical treatment, which were summarized as "Eight Gang Dialectics" and "Six Classics Treatment" in Treatise on Febrile Diseases. After the two methods were used for dialectical treatment, the eight methods (Khan, Vomit, Xia, and He , Wen, Qing, Bu, Xiao) to treat diseases. "Eight outlines of dialectics" are the specific principles of dialectical treatment in the book. The so-called "eight outlines" (yin, yang, appearance, inner, cold, heat, deficiency, and reality) use the "four diagnosis" (looking, smelling, asking, cutting). ) It is concluded by analyzing and examining the location and nature of the disease. "Six Classics Theory" is the specific application of the entire Zangfu meridian theory in clinical medicine.

At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Hua Huan was known for his proficiency in surgery and anesthesia. Hua Huan was the first person in the world to use anesthesia for surgery. He invented Ma Bo San was the world's earliest anesthetic drug and also founded the world. On one of the earliest fitness gymnastics "Wu Qin Xi". It is a pity that Hua Qing's medical book "The Green Book" was finally burned. In the Han Dynasty, a large number of books on medicine and calendars were introduced into Tibet (recorded in the "Tibet of the King of Tibet"). A specialized gynecological hospital also appeared in the Han Dynasty. The "Breast House" in the Western Han Dynasty was the earliest maternity hospital in the world.

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589), the world's earliest two pediatric monographs were published, namely, Wang Mocao's "Medicines for Pediatric Herbs" and Xu Shuxiang's "Medical Recipes for Treating Little Children with 100 Diseases". Twenty years of Song Yuanjia in the Southern Dynasty (AD 443), Qin Chengzu was the first medical school in the world created by Taiyi. In the 6th century AD, the Sui Dynasty perfected this medical education institution and named it "Medical Physician Department". There are two divisions of medicine and medicine. The Physician's Order is the highest official position. Pharmacy teachers, doctors of medicine, teaching assistants, doctors of massage, doctors of forbidden doctors, the maximum number of teachers and students in the school reached 580.

In the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), Sun Sizhen summarized the theories and experiences of his predecessors, collected more than 5,000 prescriptions, and published Three Great Doctors Sincerely, Qian Qian Yao Fang and Qian Qian Yi Fang. In this medical work, he is later called the King of Medicine. After the Tang Dynasty, a large number of Chinese medical theories and works were spread to Turkic, Goguryeo, Japan, Central Asia, and Western Asia.

In the late Tang and early Song dynasties, the pediatric monograph "Cranial Sutra Classic" became popular, and Qian Yi (AD 1032-1113), the first famous pediatric expert in the history of world medicine, was inspired by this book and wrote the famous pediatric masterpiece "Pediatrics" "Direct Pharmacology", later generations called Qian Yizun "the holy pediatric", "the originator of juvenile". During the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127), the Song government established the Hanlin Medical College, which is the Taiyi Medical Bureau. The medical branch has been very complete, and unified acupuncture points in China, and published the Book of Figures. Song Ci of the Northern Song Dynasty published the world's earliest forensic work, "Recollection of Injustice".

In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the famous medical scientist Li Shizhen's medical book "Compendium of Materia Medica" was completed. This book is not only a monograph on pharmacology, but also includes knowledge about botany, zoology, mineralogy, chemistry, and so on. "Compendium of Materia Medica" was soon introduced into Asian regions such as Japan, North Korea, and Vietnam, and was translated into many European languages in the 17th and 18th centuries. On the other hand, Li Shizhen was the first medical scientist in the world to propose that the brain is responsible for mental sensation, discovered gallstone disease, used ice to cool high-temperature patients, and invented disinfection technology.

In addition, there are Wang Shuhe's "The Meridian", Huang Fuzhen's "Acupuncture A and B Classic", Tao Hongjing's "Compendium of Materia Medica", Ge Hong's "Elbow Reserve Emergency Formula", Chao Yuanfang's "Essays on the Origin of Diseases", Su Jing "Medical Compendium of New Compendium", "The Secret of Outer Taiwan" by Wang Xi, "Four Medical Books" of Yuan Dan Gongbu, "Sheng Huifang of Taiping", Wang Weiyi's "Tongren Acupoint and Acupuncture Chart" come out. The development of Chinese medicine has reached its peak since the Ming Dynasty, and many medical schools have emerged. At the same time, the so-called Eastern medicine, which studies Chinese medicine in North Korea, has also made great progress. For example, Xu Jun wrote "Eastern Medicine Book".

Since the end of the Qing Dynasty, China has been invaded by Western powers, and the national movement has weakened. At the same time, the influx of modern medicine (western medicine) has severely impacted the development of traditional Chinese medicine. Many people in China have advocated medical modernization, and Chinese medicine has been challenged tremendously. People began to use the thinking model of the western medical system to examine it, and Chinese medicine was caught in the debate between existence and abandonment. The same is true of Japanese Hanfang medicine, which is also part of the Chinese medical system, and Korean medicine in South Korea. Since "SARS" in 2003, the traditional Chinese medicine in the economy has shown signs of recovery.

During the Cultural Revolution, traditional Chinese medicine as a medical example of "use for the past" was developed with the support of the CPC's policy. In modern times, Chinese medicine is still one of the commonly used methods for treating diseases in China.

History of Modern Medical Development

Modern medicine

Western modern medicine refers to medicine gradually rising after the Renaissance, and generally includes European medicine in the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries.

16th century

In the late feudal society, handicraft industry and commerce developed, handicraft factories appeared, and productivity growth also promoted the search for new markets. Columbus discovered the New World in 1492, Da Gamma discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, and Magellan orbited the world for a week from 1519 to 1522. Many drugs (such as opium, camphor, and rosin) were introduced to Europe from the East. After the Americas were discovered, Europe also had cinchona, guaiac, and cocoa.

Due to the rise of capitalism, bourgeois intellectuals were first formed in Italy. They are characterized by their courage to challenge the church's thinking and oppose the shackles of religious superstition. Their slogan is: "I am a man, and I should know everything about man" in order to oppose theological rule. On the one hand, they spread new culture, and on the other hand, they tried hard to study and imitate the culture of ancient Greece, so this period is called "Renaissance". The publication of Copernicus in 1543 was the beginning of the Renaissance in the history of science.

Medical revolution. In the Renaissance, doubts about dogma and opposition to authority rose. As a result, the medical profession also produced a medical revolution represented by Paracelsus (1493--1541).

Medieval medical schools mainly talked about Avicenna's "Medicine" and the works of Galen and Hippocrates. Teachers follow the rules of the book, everything sticks to the rules and is lifeless. The Renaissance frenzy soon spread to the medical field. Paracelsus pointed out that the human life process is a chemical process. When he taught at the University of Basel, he advocated writing books and lectures in popular German to make medicine accessible to the public. This was a great reform. He values practice, opposes cumbersome scholastic philosophy, and opposes stubborn traditions and authority concepts in the Middle Ages. He said: "Without science and experience, no one can become a doctor. My work is not a reference to ancient authority, but to the greatest teacher written by experience. " He bravely fought against stereotypes and blind worship, and publicly burned the works of Galen and Avicenna.

Establishment of human anatomy. The ancients believed that the body was the place where the soul lived. In feudal society, all ethnic groups forbidden to dissect the body without exception. Therefore, human anatomy has not been developed. In medical books of this era, such as the anatomy by Galen, the anatomy is almost entirely drawn from animal internal organs. On the contrary, in the culture of the Renaissance, people were the center of attention. In the medical field, the first thing people paid attention to was to study the structure of the human body.

The first to innovate anatomy was Da Vinci of Italy. He believed that as a realist painter, he needed to understand the need for anatomy, especially the need to understand bones and muscles, so he engaged in human anatomy. However, there are more than 150 anatomical drawings he has drawn, which are still passed today. Most of the paintings are accurate and beautiful. He first questioned Galen's anatomy. He had blown air into the trachea, but no matter how hard he could see the heart swell, he concluded that Galen's theory that the lungs and the heart communicated was wrong. He has also examined the structure and shape of the heart, and the heart picture he draws is much more accurate than previous pictures. In addition, he also discovered the activity and properties of the aortic root valve, proving that the valve's role is to prevent blood from flowing back. The cardiovascular problems he mentioned soon attracted the attention of medical scientists.

The work of writing a textbook of human anatomy based on direct observation was done by A. Visari. Visali first studied at the University of Louvre and then transferred to the University of Paris. At the time, when the two universities were teaching anatomy, they were still teaching in the high chair, assistants and craftsmen were operating under the stage, and at most 3 or 4 dissections were allowed in a year. Visali was not satisfied with this situation and went to the wild at night to steal the body for autopsy. At the time, the University of Padova in Italy had the best anatomy classroom in Europe. So he went to teach there. In 1543, he compiled the materials accumulated in his work into books and published them publicly. This book is "Structural Theory of the Human Body". This book points out that Galen's mistakes have reached more than 200 places, such as 5-lobe liver and two mandibles. It is pointed out that the basis of Galen's anatomy is animals such as monkeys. Although Visari was also accused of being conservative at the time, his students developed anatomy.

In short, in the 16th century, European medicine got rid of the shackles of ancient authority and began to develop independently. Its main achievement was the establishment of human anatomy. This not only indicates that an ancient discipline is resurrected at a new level, but also marks the beginning of a new journey in medicine.

17th century

In the 16th century, there was a revolution in the Netherlands, which produced the independent bourgeois state, the Netherlands. In the 17th century, Britain overthrew authoritarian monarchy and established a bourgeois parliamentary system. The emerging bourgeoisie supports science and technology for the development of industry and commerce, and advocates tolerance, all of which have progressive effects. In philosophy, Bacon proposed empiricism, advocated observation experiments, advocated that all knowledge comes from experience, and advocated induction; his famous saying "knowledge is power" inspired the enthusiasm of future generations to explore. Descartes is the representative of the only theory. He attaches importance to the thinking ability of man, and at the same time, he applies the mechanistic viewpoint to the study of physiological problems, which has great influence on the life sciences of later generations. Some scientific societies also appeared during this period, which promoted exchanges and promoted scientific progress. In the 17th century, British science was a leader.

Advances in Physiology. In the 17th century, the concept of measurement was widespread. The first measure to be used in the medical world was Santorio (1561 ~ 1636). He made thermometers and pulse meters. He also created a large scale like a hut, where he can live, sleep, exercise, and eat; before and after excretion, he weighed his own weight, and worked so tirelessly for more than 30 years. He found that weight was also lost when not being excreted, believing that the cause was "unnoticeable sweating." This is arguably the earliest metabolism study.

The application of experiments and measurements has made life science into the scientific track. Its hallmark is the discovery of blood circulation.

WS Harvey (1578 ~ 1657) also graduated from the University of Padova. Before him, anatomists at the University of Padova have successively discovered and explained the blood circulation of the heart. In 1553, the Spanish scholar M. Servert (1511 ~ 1553) confirmed that blood flowed from the right ventricle into the left ventricle, not through the holes in the septum, but through the lungs as a "long and wonderful roundabout".

Harvey was the first to apply living anatomy experimental methods in scientific research to directly observe animal body movements. At the same time, he also accurately calculated the amount of blood flowing from the left ventricle into the common artery and from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery. He analyzed that the blood could never come from the diet or stay in the body tissues. He concluded that the blood injected from the left ventricle into the arteries must be the blood returning from the vein to the right ventricle. This found blood circulation. Harvey published the book "Heart Movement Theory" in 1628. However, living anatomy has developed extremely cruelly, cruelty to animals, and excessive application of living anatomy must be reformed.

Application of microscope. With the rise of experiments, many scientific instruments appeared, and microscopes appeared in the early 17th century. Microscopes take people to a new level of understanding. After that, scientists made a series of important discoveries with the microscope.

Clinical Medicine and T. Sydenham (1624 ~ 1689). There was little progress in medicine until the 17th century. Medicine is similar to the Middle Ages, and the theory of four fluids is still the basis of disease theory. As doctors at the time studied sterology and physiology, and seemed to forget doctors' responsibilities, T. Sidham, a 17th-century clinical therapist, said: "The most direct relationship with doctors is neither anatomy internship, nor Physiology experiment. It is a patient suffering from disease. Therefore, the task of the doctor must first correctly understand the nature of pain, that is, to observe more about the situation of patients with the same disease, and then study the knowledge of anatomy and physiology to derive the disease. Explanation and therapy. " At the same time, he was very supportive of Hippocrates' idea of "natural healing power". This not only shows that the clinical science was still very backward, but also shows that he attaches great importance to the disease resistance of the human body.

18th century

In the 18th century, European countries have entered the period of establishing capitalism. In the 18th century, the United States became independent, France revolutionized, the bourgeoisie gained power in most Western European countries, and expanded its forces outward to develop world trade. Stimulated by the need for goods, first a major technological innovation occurred in the British cotton textile industry. Looms and textile machines were invented. In 1784, J. Watt made an improved steam engine. It is used not only in the textile industry but also in the textile industry. Various industrial and mining. Using machine production instead of manual production is the so-called industrial revolution. Manual workers became machine workers, and the industrial proletariat was first formed in Britain. At the same time, capitalist productive forces have greatly developed.

Establishment of pathological anatomy . By the 18th century, medical scientists had dissected countless corpses and had a clear understanding of the normal structure of the human body. Based on this, they were likely to recognize several abnormal structures. Italian pathoanatomist GB Morgani (1682 ~ 1771) published the book "On the Location and Cause of Disease" in 1761, which described the changes of organs under the influence of the disease, and made scientific speculations on the cause of the disease. . He sees the disease as a local injury, and believes that each disease has its corresponding lesion in an organ. It was after him that physicians began to use "lesions" to explain symptoms. This thinking has a great impact on the entire medical field in the future.

The invention of percussion . In the second half of the 18th century, the Austrian doctor JL Ornbrugg (1722-1809) invented the percussion. His father was the owner of the hotel, and he often used his fingers to knock on the wine barrel to guess the volume of wine in the barrel based on his voice. Later, Ornbrugger applied this method to the human chest to look for "lesions." After a lot of empirical observations, including autopsy tracking, he founded the percussion method that has been applied to date. However, the promotion and application of percussion method is still a matter of the 19th century.

The beginning of clinical teaching . Before the 17th century, there was no organized clinical education in Europe. Students went to medical schools to study, and as long as they studied, they could receive a diploma after passing the exam. In the middle of the 17th century, Leiden University in the Netherlands began clinical teaching and lifted restrictions on religious denominations, attracting many foreign students. By the 18th century, clinical medicine teaching had flourished. Leiden University had set up teaching beds in hospitals. H. Burhave (1668 ~ 1738) became a world-renowned clinical medical scientist at that time. Burhawi made full use of bed teaching. Before performing pathological anatomy, he tried to provide students with clinical symptoms and information about their relationship with pathological changes. This was the pioneer of the future clinicopathological seminar (CPC).

Achievements in preventive medicine . E. Jenner (1749-1823) invented the vaccinia vaccination method, which was a major event in preventive medicine in the 18th century. In the 16th century, China had used smallpox inoculation to prevent smallpox. In the early 18th century, this method was transmitted to Britain via Turkey, and Jenner found in practice that vaccination of vaccinia is safer than vaccination of human pox. This improvement increases the safety of vaccination and contributes to the ultimate elimination of smallpox by humans. At the end of the 18th century, the industrial revolution rose. Farmers flooded into the city. Capitalists only make money, they don't care about workers' lives. Workers live in dirty, wet slums, and after a tiring day without being able to feed and feed, they have a lot of diseases. This kind of problem has attracted some people's attention. In addition, the fraternity thought spread in the Enlightenment has affected some people, so public health and social medicine issues have gradually been raised. The German JP Frank (1745-1821) wrote the "Complete System of Medical Supervision", which talked about many issues of public health and social medicine. At the same time, there have been calls for improved prison health and the liberation of mental patients (the mental patients cannot be treated in cruel ways such as wearing fetters and handcuffs). This type of activity is mainly personal, and it was not until the 19th century that the government gradually paid attention to these issues.

19th century

In the 19th century, the major European countries followed the British and French, and the bourgeois revolution broke out successively. In the 19th century, Britain completed the industrial revolution that began in the middle of the 18th century. After that, France, Germany, Russia, and the United States also successively completed the industrial revolution. The progress of the bourgeois revolution and the industrial revolution has destroyed feudal forces, promoted social development and changes in production relations, and greatly increased productivity. This has promoted the development of natural sciences.

In the 19th century, natural science and technology made great progress:

In physics, there are the laws of conservation of energy and transformation, advances in optics, and further improvements in microscopes such as compound objectives (1823), colorless lenses (1830), and oil immersion devices (1886). Due to the advancement of electricity, electric heaters and electrical treatments appeared one after another.

In terms of chemistry, there are atomic theory, elemental periodic rate, and the emergence of synthetic organic matter. German F. Willer (1880 ~ 1882) synthesized urea in 1828, breaking the boundary between organic and inorganic matter.

In biology, there are theories of cytology, evolution, and genetic laws. The main advances of European medicine in the 19th century were as follows:

Cytopathology. In the early 19th century, cytology suggested that by the middle of the 19th century, German pathologist R. Filshaw advocated cytopathology and advanced disease research to the cellular level. The basic principles of his theory include: cells come from cells; the body is the sum of cells; diseases can be explained by cytopathology.

The establishment of bacteriology. In the middle of the 19th century, due to the needs of the fermentation industry, the advancement of physics and chemistry, and the improvement of microscopes, bacteriology was born. Frenchman L. Pasteur (1822 ~ 1895) began to study the role of fermentation, and later studied microorganisms, proving that fermentation and infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms. German R. Koch (1843--1910) discovered Vibrio cholerae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Bacillus anthracis, etc., and improved the methods of culturing bacteria and staining methods of bacteria. He also proposed the three laws of Koch. Their work laid the foundation for microbiology. The last 30 years of the 19th century was the era of bacteriology. Most major pathogenic bacteria were discovered during this period.

Pasteur also studied cholera in chickens, anthracnose in cattle and sheep, and rabies, and first studied vaccines by reducing microbial virulence, thereby creating classic immunology. Later, the Russian ..Mechennikov (1845-1916) who worked at the Pasteur Institute systematically explained the phenomenon of phagocytosis and the immune phenomenon of some infectious diseases; published in 1880 the inter-microbial confrontation and their Discussion of variation; in the early 20th century, lactic acid bacteria and pathogenic bacteria were found to antagonize each other in the human intestine, and lactic acid bacteria preparations were used to treat certain bowel diseases. He made a great contribution to early immunology.

Pharmacology. In the early 19th century, the active ingredients of some botanical drugs were successively extracted. For example, morphine was proposed by opioids in 1806; quinine was proposed by cinchonape in 1819.

By the middle of the 19th century, urea and chloroform had been synthesized. In 1859, salicylate antipyretic and analgesics were successfully synthesized, and refined into aspirin by the end of the 19th century. Since then, various drugs have been continuously refined. Later, people began to study the properties and effects of drugs. Based on clinical medicine and physiology, and using animal experiments as a means, experimental pharmacology has emerged.

Experimental physiology. In the 19th century, people applied physical and chemical theories and experimental methods to study the organism, and experimental physiology gradually emerged.

F. Marjandi (1783 ~ 1855) in France, JP Miller (1801 ~ 1858) in Germany and C. Bernard (1813 ~ 1878) in France have conducted a large number of physiological studies on nervous and digestive systems using animal experiments. Their work laid the scientific foundation for modern physiological research.

Advances in diagnostics. Due to the influence of pathological anatomy and cytopathology, in the clinical medicine at that time, special attention was paid to the research and diagnosis of pathological changes in internal organs, and various methods were sought to find "lesions" to continuously enrich the diagnostic methods, diagnostic methods and auxiliary diagnostic tools. Increasingly. By the end of the 19th century, inspections had more or less changed from direct observation of patients to the results of research laboratories.

In the middle of the 18th century, Ornbrugger had invented and improved the percussion method. However, the percussion method was despised and ridiculed by the old doctors of the time, and it was not applied. It was not until the beginning of the 19th century that French doctor JN Colvisa (1755-1821) promoted percussion after 20 years of research, which promoted the clinical application of percussion.

Invented by auscultation was RTH Laeneck (1781--1826), a French pathologist and clinician. From the works of Hippocrates, he learned the auscultation of heart and lungs. At first he auscultated directly with his ears, then made a stethoscope, first made of paper, then wooden. He examined many patients and studied the smallest phenomena found with a stethoscope. Numerous autopsies were performed, and the results were compared with clinical phenomena, which improved the auscultation method. In 1819, he published the paper "Indirect Auscultation" and diagnosed lung and heart diseases based on this new examination method.

Many clinical diagnostic aids such as blood pressure measurement, temperature measurement, and laparoscopy were applied in the 19th century. With new lighting devices and optical appliances, a series of optical instruments have been invented and used in succession. Earlier ophthalmoscopes of the German H. Helmholtz (1821 ~ 1894) were followed by inventions of laryngoscope, cystoscope, esophoscope, gastroscope, bronchoscope, etc., which enriched clinical diagnostic methods, It makes it possible to perform treatment in the posterior body cavity.

Due to the development of chemistry, clinical medicine uses chemical analysis testing methods to check the contents of blood, which greatly improves the diagnostic method. The continuous advancement of microscopy has led to the gradual acquisition of morphological diagnostics in clinical practice. It studies the tissue structure and formation of body fluids and solid parts, and studies the structural components of normal and abnormal excreta. By the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, doctors' diagnostic methods were more abundant due to the achievements of microbiology and immunology.

Advances in surgery. Before the 19th century, surgery was very backward. The main basic problems such as pain, infection, and bleeding remain unresolved, which limits the number and scope of surgeries. In the middle of the 19th century, the development of anatomy and the application of anesthesia, antiseptic and aseptic methods played a decisive role in the development of surgery in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The important achievements in the above aspects have paved the way for the development of surgery. Since then science has developed rapidly. At the end of the 19th century, body cavity surgery was generally developed, so that in addition to medical treatment in many clinical specialties (such as gynecology, urology, ophthalmology, etc.), surgical methods also gained important status.

Modern medicine

Modern science and technology does not study only one thing and one phenomenon, but studies the process of change and development of things and phenomena, and studies the relationship between things. The science of "organizing materials" has developed into a tightly integrated system.

Modern medicine experienced the foundations of the 16th to 17th centuries, the systematic classification of the 18th century, the great development of the 19th century, and the close integration of modern science and technology into the 20th century, and developed into modern medicine.

The characteristics of 20th century medicine are on the one hand to microscopic development, such as molecular biology; on the other hand, to macroscopic development.

In terms of macro development, it can be divided into two types:

First, people recognize that people are a whole;

The second is to study people as a whole that interacts closely with the natural and social environment.

Since the 20th century, the most outstanding achievement in basic medicine is the development of basic theories, which has effectively promoted clinical medicine and preventive medicine. Effective means of treating and preventing diseases only emerged in the 20th century.

The main reason for the development of medicine in the 20th century was the advancement of natural science. In 1992, Zeng Bangzhe (Zeng Jie) of China proposed the concepts and models of systems medicine and pharmacology. The interdisciplinary integration of various disciplines and professions forms one of the characteristics of modern medicine.

Medical paradigm shift

In the 20th century medicine, due to the advancement of natural science, it was firmly established on the basis of experiments, and it has made unprecedented advances in technology. Later, people saw that considering health and disease only from a biological perspective, there are great limitations. . In 1977, the American medical scientist GL Engel (1913 ) proposed the biological-psychological-social medical model, that is, to comprehensively examine human health and disease issues from three aspects of biology, psychology and sociology, so as to make up for the past purely from biology. The shortcomings of perspective inspection will have great significance for the development of future medical and health services.

In short, since the 20th century, great progress has been made in medicine. At the research level, it has evolved from micro and macro, from the experimental methods of molecular medicine to the combination of theoretical and experimental methods of systematic medicine. In the discipline system, the division of disciplines and the cross integration of disciplines go hand in hand. The 2012 International Conference on Systematic Medicine was held in Ireland. In 2013, the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences established the Institute of Systematic Medicine in Suzhou. The internationalization of medical research is becoming increasingly obvious. The achievement of scientific results is no longer the result of individual efforts.

Future medicine

Whether it is traditional Chinese medicine or western medicine, since its birth, the main role has been to cure the disease. At the end of the 20th century, the global medical community concluded that the best medicine is not the medicine that cures the disease, but the medicine that makes people not sick. Therefore, we believe that the future medicine should be scientific cure (scientific prevention),

The scientific treatment of disease is to make people less sick and not sick. So what is scientific cure? It is the whole body prediction of mental and physical and mental diseases and telling them which foods are caused by the illness or not. By supplementing the lack of food and restricting overeating, the individualized scientific food therapy can achieve the goal of treating the same disease.

Applicable people: prevention before illness, early detection of illness, recovery from serious illness. Critical and severe diseases require traditional Chinese medicine, western medicine, surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, etc., while the future medicine, that is, the scientific treatment of the disease, is to use a green therapy diet to prevent and treat mental and physical diseases.

Humans are created by nature. Food nourishes humans. Any kind of food in the world has a drug effect. A long-term partial eclipse means that the diet structure is unscientific, unreasonable, and unbalanced. The World Health Organization proposes four cornerstones of health: balanced nutrition, moderate exercise, adequate sleep, and smoking cessation and alcohol restriction .