What is Implementation Shortfall?

Curriculum implementation is a means to achieve the desired educational results. There are two main points of view. One is that the problem of course implementation is to study the implementation of a course plan. The other is that the course implementation exists as a dynamic process.

Course implementation

Curriculum implementation is a means to achieve the desired educational results. There are two main points of view. One is that the problem of course implementation is to study the implementation of a course plan. The other is that the course implementation exists as a dynamic process.

Chinese name

Course implementation

Foreign name

curriculum implementation

Definition

Means to achieve expected educational results

Features

Faithful orientation

Main points of the meaning of a course implementation

There are two main views that have a greater impact. One view is that the problem of course implementation is to study the implementation of a course plan. The research focus on curriculum implementation is to examine the implementation of the content designed in the curriculum plan. This view regards the course plan as fixed and immutable, and implementation is a process of execution. Schools and teachers as curriculum implementers should understand and apply the curriculum well and faithfully implement the items specified in the curriculum plan. The effect of implementation depends on the level of understanding and implementation of the course plan by the course implementers. Another view is that curriculum implementation exists as a dynamic process. "Curriculum implementation is the process of putting a curriculum reform into practice. The focus of implementation is the degree of reform that occurs in practice and those factors that affect the degree of reform." Therefore, the problem of curriculum implementation is not only to study the degree of implementation of the curriculum plan, but also to study whether schools and teachers have adjusted the curriculum according to the actual situation and the factors that affect the degree of curriculum reform in the implementation of a specific curriculum.

The above are two typical understandings of course implementation. It can be said that different understandings of course implementation have led to different strategies for course implementation, orientation of course implementation, and different ways of solving problems in the course of implementation. Those who hold the first point of view are more inclined to carry out reforms centered on the country or locality, and believe that the process of reform is the process of faithfully executing the plan; those who hold the second point of view emphasize that it is a continuous and dynamic In the implementation process, schools, teachers, and students are the main bodies of reforms, and they are given more autonomy to implement the changes. Without reforms at the level of classroom teaching, there can be no real new curriculum implementation. The core of the new curriculum reform is classroom teaching reform. ^[1]

The orientation of curriculum implementation refers to different perceptions of the nature of the curriculum implementation process and the corresponding values that govern these perceptions. During the course implementation, due to different educational values, they will have different understandings of the course implementation, and will participate in the course implementation with different attitudes and methods. There are three basic orientations in curriculum implementation, namely, the faithful orientation, the mutual adaptation orientation, and the curriculum creation orientation.

A Faithful orientation

The loyalty orientation refers to the course implementation as a process of faithfully executing the course plan. The basic criterion for measuring the success of a course is the extent to which a predetermined course plan is realized during the course. The closer the course is implemented to the scheduled course plan, the more faithful and the higher the degree of course implementation; the greater the gap with the scheduled course plan, the less faithful and the lower the degree of course implementation.

This perspective emphasizes the priority and importance of curriculum design, and emphasizes that the curriculum plan planned in advance has a demonstration role, and teachers should implement it without hesitation. If teachers in the classroom fail to faithfully implement the curriculum, investing in considerable resources, time and energy, and planning the best school curriculum is a complete loss. The faithful orientation of curriculum implementation does not leave teachers with too much flexibility and freedom to play. It does not encourage or allow individual teachers to modify the content of the curriculum in response to changes in their classroom situations. The basic assumption is that if teachers have less choices in course implementation, the more explicit the course implementation method, the more "faithful" the course implementation will be. The faithful orientation emphasizes the important position of curriculum experts in curriculum reform. It regards curriculum reform as a mechanical and linear process of implementing the planned curriculum plan. It lacks awareness of the initiative of curriculum implementers and is liable to fall into the quagmire of mechanism and dogma.

Faithful curriculum implementation is suitable for certain specific curriculum situations, especially for new curriculum programs that are extremely complex, difficult and difficult to master, or students understanding depends on specific arrangements that match the curriculum content. Therefore, The order of course implementation needs to be specified beforehand. However, the curriculum specifications and administrative orders can regulate the minimum range and minimum standards of curriculum subject knowledge, but cannot restrict the maximum selection range and the highest achievement standards for teachers and students, let alone the choice of learning methods for teachers and students.

Mutual adaptation orientation

The mutual adaptation orientation refers to the course implementation as a process in which the course designer and the course implementer agree to make adjustments and adopt the most effective method to ensure the effectiveness of the course implementation. The mutual adaptation orientation emphasizes that curriculum implementation is not one-way transmission and acceptance, but two-way interaction and change. The curriculum plan needs to be flexibly adjusted according to the actual situation of school education. In fact, all course programs must be revised and adjusted during the implementation process to apply to specific and changing classroom situations. Only in this way can teachers maximize the effectiveness of student learning.

The mutual adaptation orientation believes that after the implementation of a curriculum plan, two changes may occur: on the one hand, the established curriculum plan changes to meet the special needs of various specific practical situations; on the other hand, the existing curriculum Practice will change to suit the specific requirements of the curriculum. Mutual adaptation in course implementation is necessary and inevitable.

The mutual adaptation orientation tends to regard curriculum reform as a complex, non-linear and unpredictable process, rather than a linear deduction process of expected goals and planning solutions. Therefore, we should pay attention to the analysis of social situation factors in the course of course implementation, in order to reveal the deep mechanism of course reform. The mutual adjustment orientation considers the impact of specific practical situations, such as community conditions, school situations, and characteristics of teachers and students on the implementation of the curriculum, reflecting the initiative of teachers and students, the complexity, uncertainty and process of curriculum implementation. Compared with the faithful orientation, it is more in line with the actual situation of course implementation.

Three course creation orientation

The orientation of curriculum creation is to regard the implementation of the curriculum as a process in which teachers and students work together to create new educational experiences in specific classroom situations. The real curriculum is not fixed before implementation, it is contextualized and personified. Curriculum implementation is essentially a process of creating students of new educational experiences in specific classroom situations. The existing curriculum is nothing more than a tool for this experience creation process.

The curriculum creation orientation emphasizes that "the curriculum is practice." Courses are not delivered textbooks or schedules, nor are orders and dogmas taken for granted, but hypotheses that need to be questioned, critiqued, verified, and rewritten.

The curriculum creation orientation emphasizes "teachers as courses." Teachers play a key role in determining the success of the new curriculum. The promulgation of the "Outline of Basic Education Curriculum Reform (Trial)" and the formulation of curriculum standards for various disciplines are only the first step in curriculum reform. Curriculum reform is the re-learning process of teachers. Curriculum development means the professional development of teachers. Without teacher development, there is no curriculum development. The fundamental difference between the new curriculum and the old curriculum is that the new curriculum recognizes that curriculum knowledge is not developed by experts and scholars and passed on to teachers, and then passed on by teachers to students. Expert-designed courses are only a temporary assumption. Teachers need to experiment in classroom teaching, interact with students, and discuss conversations with colleagues. The result of this process is knowledge. Teachers and students construct knowledge through observation, experimentation, analysis, dialogue, and debate. Therefore, the teacher must change his role to be a learner and reflector. When "every teacher becomes a curriculum designer, every classroom becomes a curriculum laboratory, every school becomes an educational community", that is, when the new curriculum is perfectly implemented.

Because the creation orientation emphasizes the creativity of teachers and students in curriculum development and the role of teachers and students in the curriculum development process, this orientation places high demands on teachers and students, and the scope of implementation is relatively limited.

The above three orientations reveal the essence of curriculum implementation from different aspects, each of which has its own value. From the faithful orientation to the mutual adaptation orientation, and then to the curriculum creation orientation, it means that the curriculum reform has evolved from the pursuit of "technical rationality" to the pursuit of "practical rationality" to the pursuit of "liberation rationality".

Curriculum implementation is not only a process of teacher teaching, but also a process of student learning. An important specific goal of the basic education curriculum reform is to "change the current status of curriculum implementation with an over-emphasis on acceptance of learning, rote learning, and mechanical training, and encourage students to take an active part, be willing to explore, and be diligent in their work, and cultivate students' ability to collect and process information. The ability to learn new knowledge, the ability to analyze and solve problems, and the ability to communicate and collaborate. "Therefore, the implementation of the new curriculum reform requires a change in the way students learn, that is, the transformation of single, passive, and closed learning that exists in some classrooms. Ways to promote and develop diversified learning styles, especially to promote autonomous, inquiring, and cooperative learning styles, so that students can become masters of learning, so that students' subjective consciousness, initiative, and creativity are continuously developed and students Innovative spirit and practical ability.

In the past, when we entered the classroom, it is not difficult to find that the classroom teaching mode is basically indoctrination-acceptance, and the students' learning method is basically listening-reciting-exercising-reproducing the knowledge taught by teachers. The students are completely in a state of passive acceptance. The teacher focuses on how to accurately explain the knowledge and conclusions to the students. The students only need to listen intently and write down the teacher's speech. Answer the papers accurately during the exam, even if you have completed the study tasks. Therefore, teachers and parents require students to listen, listening has become the most important learning method for students. The results of the survey conducted by the Basic Education Department of the Ministry of Education indicate that before the new round of curriculum reform in basic education, the way of teaching and learning in China's compulsory education was characterized by passive acceptance of learning.

Generally speaking, there are two ways of learning for students: acceptance learning and discovery learning. In the acceptance learning, the learning content is presented directly in the form of conclusions, and the psychological mechanism or way for students to learn is assimilated. Students are receivers of knowledge. In discovery learning, learning content is presented indirectly in the form of questions. The psychological mechanism or way for students to learn is to adapt, and students are the discoverers of knowledge. Both learning methods have their own value, and they are also mutually reinforcing. But in previous teachings, too much emphasis was placed on accepting learning, neglecting and demeaning discovery and inquiry. Therefore, in practice, it leads to extreme treatment of the students 'cognitive process, which makes students' study of book knowledge become only the direct acceptance of book knowledge, and student learning becomes a process of pure passive acceptance and memory. This kind of learning suffocates people's thinking and intelligence, and destroys their interest and enthusiasm for learning. It can not only promote the development of students 'intelligence, but also become a resistance to the development of students' intelligence. Changing the way of learning is to change this state, highlighting the cognitive activities such as discovery, inquiry, and discussion during the learning process. The reform of the basic education curriculum changes the previous single receptive learning method, advocates autonomous, cooperative, and inquiring learning methods, allows students to become masters of learning, and promotes the overall development of students' knowledge and skills, emotional attitudes, and values. Innovative talents are of great significance.

-Independent learning

Autonomous learning focuses on the learner's subjectivity and initiative. It is a learning method in which students are autonomous rather than dominated by others. Yu Wensen believes that the important meaning of autonomous learning is active learning. Initiative is the basic quality of autonomous learning, and it manifests itself as "I want to learn" in student learning activities. "I want to learn" is based on a student's inherent need for learning. The inherent needs of student learning are mainly manifested in two aspects, one aspect is the interest. With a student's interest in learning, learning activities are not a burden for him, but a kind of enjoyment and a pleasant experience. The more students learn, the more they want to learn, and the more they learn, the more they love to learn. On the contrary, if students are not interested in learning and passively learn in a state of persecution, the effect of learning must be more effective. On the other hand is the responsibility of learning. If students are unaware of their own study responsibilities and cannot organically link learning with their lives, lives, growth, and development, such learning is not autonomous learning. Only when the responsibility of learning is truly transferred from the teacher to the students, and the students consciously bear the responsibility of learning, is the student's learning a truly autonomous learning. Secondly, autonomous learning is also a kind of metacognitive monitoring learning. Autonomous learning requires students to have a conscious awareness and response to issues such as why they can learn, whether they can learn, what to learn, and how to learn. It is prominent in students' self-planning, self-adjustment, self-direction, and self-reinforcement of learning. During the activity, you can determine your own learning goals, formulate a learning plan, choose a learning method, and prepare yourself for learning; in the learning activity, you can self-observe, self-examine, and self-regulate your own learning process, learning status, and learning behavior ; After learning activities, be able to self-check, self-summary, self-evaluation and self-remedy on your learning results. Cultivating students 'self-awareness and self-control of learning and developing habits are important factors that promote students' autonomous learning.

To cultivate students' independent learning quality, teachers should actively create conditions to guide students to actively participate in all aspects of teaching. The first is to actively participate in the formulation of teaching goals. After the teacher puts forward the learning content, he can guide students to think: "What do I want to learn?" "What should I learn?" By setting the teaching goals together with teachers and students, it is conducive to stimulating students' interest and desire to learn, and guide students to become "want me "Learn" is "I want to learn". The second is to actively participate in the determination of teaching priorities and difficulties. In teaching, teachers should actively guide students to analyze the key points and difficulties of teaching and methods of solving problems according to the requirements of teaching goals, cultivate their ability to ask questions, analyze problems, and solve problems, and give students the initiative to learn. The third is to actively participate in the evaluation of teaching effects. In teaching, teachers should pay attention to guiding students to regulate their own learning activities, self-examination, self-feedback, and self-evaluation of their own learning process and learning results, and cultivate students' ability of independent learning, self-management and self-education. At the same time, they are encouraged to put forward their opinions and suggestions on the teaching methods and methods of teachers.

Autonomous learning is relative to that of the master. Primary school students' autonomous learning should be a kind of creative learning under the guidance of teachers. The more emphasis is placed on autonomous learning, the more important it is to guide teachers.

Inquiry learning

In addition to passively receiving knowledge during the learning process, there are also a large number of cognitive activities such as discovery and inquiry. The new curriculum requires a change in learning style, which is to transform a single passively-accepting learning, highlighting the cognitive activities such as discovery and inquiry during the learning process, so that the learning process becomes more of students discovering problems, asking questions, and analyzing problems The process of solving the problem. Yu Wensen believes that inquiry learning is also called discovery learning, and its essence is reflected in the following three aspects. The first is problematic. The problem is to discover the starting point and main line of learning, and also the destination of discovery learning. Discovery learning is problem-centered learning. Questions are at the core of this learning method. Whether you can ask questions that are challenging and attractive to students and make them aware of the problem is the key to discovery learning. The second is process. Relatively speaking, accepting learning is more important and finding that learning is more important. Research on modern educational psychology points out that the learning process of students and the exploration process of scientists are essentially the same. They are all processes of finding, analyzing, and solving problems. On the one hand, this process is a process of exposing students 'various questions, difficulties, obstacles and contradictions, on the other hand, it is a process of showing students' intelligence, unique personality, and innovative results. Because of this, discovery emphasizes the process, emphasizing students' experiences of discovering new knowledge and the experience of acquiring new knowledge. The third is openness. Accepted learning is a closed learning, which is characterized by a singular learning goal, a programmed learning process, and standardized learning evaluation; discovery learning is an open learning, which is characterized by an integrated learning goal and a personalized learning process Diversified learning evaluation. Discovery learning emphasizes knowledge, ability, cognition, and emotional experience, and its goals are open; discovery learning emphasizes the process of individual learning activities, and pays attention to the rich and colorful learning experience and personality of students in this process. The process of open-minded creative expression is open; the evaluation of learning emphasizes multiple value orientations, which not only allows for different answers to problems, but also encourages students to explore their own paths, and the evaluation is open.

Cooperative learning

Cooperative learning is mutual learning in which a group or team has a clear division of responsibilities in order to complete common tasks. The important characteristic of group cooperative learning is the high emphasis on student-student interaction, that is, communication, cooperation and interaction between students. In teaching, the positive impact of student-student interaction on the healthy growth and development of students is mainly manifested in the following aspects: First, student-student interaction affects the socialization of students' values, attitudes, abilities and methods of understanding the world. In student-student interaction, students gradually become familiar with various social roles through experiments and exercises, and gradually develop their communication, understanding, and cooperation skills, as well as values, attitudes, abilities, and perspectives, and promote the development of their social adaptability. The second is that student-student interaction is conducive to the healthy growth of students' personality and psychology. Human psychology and personality develop in human activities, especially in the process of interaction between people. Psychological studies have shown that the frequency and intensity of student-student interactions are closely related to students' future psychological and personality development. Poor peer relationships at the elementary level will herald psychological and personality abnormalities in middle school and even adulthood. The third is that the student-student interaction is conducive for students to learn to look at other people's problems and gain social skills. Student-student interaction can enable students to achieve the purpose of communicating with others, eliminate the fear of interacting with others, thereby gaining language, thinking, social awareness and social ability, and promoting their social development. Fourth, student-student interaction provides more opportunities for active participation, which is conducive to the initiative and creative development of students.

Teachers' cooperative learning should mainly do two things: first, according to the actual needs of teaching, choose content that is controversial, valuable, and difficult for individuals to complete, and allow students to think independently Exchange ideas. The key lies in whether the questions raised provide opportunities for cooperation and are worthy of discussion. If the questions asked are too simple, there is no need to discuss them. Teachers should also choose the right time to organize student discussions. If students have difficulty thinking about a certain problem and their opinions are not unified, it is appropriate to conduct cooperative learning. Not all content is suitable for discussion, and it is not necessary to have groups for each class. Cooperative learning, class and individual learning still have an irreplaceable status and role. Second, we must master the essentials of cooperative learning. The premise is that there must be a division of labor, a problem suitable for discussion, and all students must participate and think independently. Not everyone does the same thing, but each student does different things to solve common problems. Cooperative learning consists of the following elements: active mutual support and cooperation; active commitment to personal responsibility in completing common tasks; all students can communicate and trust among group members; group processing of tasks completed by individuals, and effectiveness of activities Perform assessments, etc. In the process of cooperative learning, students should be trained in the "three sessions": first, learn to listen, do not interrupt others' speeches casually, strive to grasp the main points of others' speeches, and evaluate others' speeches; At the same time, ask the other party for further explanations; Third, learn to organize and lead group studies, and be able to make concluding remarks based on the views of others. Third, cooperative learning is inseparable from the guidance of teachers. Cooperative learning emphasizes students' self-inquiry, which does not mean that students learn on their own, not that teachers leave it alone. When students discuss, teachers should focus on listening and seeing, and focus on understanding. Based on this, quickly think about what adjustments should be made in the next teaching, which issues are worthy of the whole class discussion, and which issues need teachers. Explain that the teacher should make the most appropriate choice.

It is an important content of curriculum implementation research to explore the factors affecting curriculum implementation and improve the quality of curriculum implementation.

Characteristics of curriculum reform

The characteristics of curriculum change are the basic factors affecting curriculum implementation, including:

Needs and relevance of curriculum change

"Needs and relevance" here refers to the needs that course implementers are aware of. The greater the needs of curriculum implementers for curriculum change, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation. In order to improve the degree of curriculum implementation, teachers need to fully understand and accept the purpose of curriculum reform, and translate this understanding and acceptance into their inherent needs.

Clarity of curriculum change goals and meaning

"Clarity" here refers to the degree to which the users of the curriculum change plan understand the goals and meaning of the curriculum change. The higher the degree of understanding of the goals and meaning of curriculum reform, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation. In order to improve the degree of curriculum implementation, the clarity of curriculum changes needs to be improved.

The complexity of curriculum change

The "complexity" here refers to the difficulty and degree of change required by course implementers. The greater the complexity of curriculum changes that fit the needs of practitioners, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation.

Quality and practicality of curriculum change programs

The "quality and practicality" here refers to the quality and availability of the curriculum materials required by the curriculum change plan. Course implementers must be aware that the curriculum materials should be suitable for the needs of curriculum reform, and that they should be practical and available. Exploited. The higher the quality and practicality of the curriculum change plan, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation.

Characteristics of the school district

The administrative area where the school is located is the "school district", which is another important factor affecting the implementation of the curriculum, including:

The school district's historical tradition of engaging in curriculum change

The more actively and historically a school district has engaged in curriculum change, the greater the degree of implementation of a new curriculum change program. Conversely, for a conservative school district, implementing a new curriculum change plan can be difficult.

School District Adoption Process

The higher the quality of the people and things planned by the school district for a course change, the more it can respond to various problems encountered in practice, and the greater the degree of course change.

District's administrative support for curriculum change

The greater the school district's "real" administrative support for curriculum change, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation, as evidenced by many studies. When the district's organizational management is inconsistent with the curriculum change requirements, it will hinder the implementation of the curriculum change plan.

Level of curriculum change personnel development and participation in change

The higher the development level of curriculum change personnel, the greater the degree of participation in change, and the greater the degree of curriculum implementation. To improve the degree of curriculum implementation, the school district should continue to create conditions for continuous training of curriculum change personnel.

Timetable and evaluation system for curriculum change

This includes two aspects. First, the more reasonable the timing of curriculum change events is based on the understanding of classroom implementation, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation. Second, the closer the evaluation of curriculum change to the needs of the school's curriculum change, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation.

District Board of Education and Community Characteristics

The greater the common interests of the District Board of Education and the community, the more they can support each other, and the greater the degree of curriculum implementation.

Characteristics of Schools Implementing Curriculum

The characteristics of the school are another important factor affecting the implementation of the curriculum.

The role of the principal

The more actively the principal supports curriculum reform, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation. Fran summarizes six strategies for successful principals: strengthening the school's cooperative culture; using different bureaucratic institutions to stimulate and enhance cultural change; encouraging the development of faculty and staff; and working directly with teachers and students on cultural norms, values, and beliefs Communicate frequently; share power with others and increase personal responsibility; use symbols to express cultural value.

Teacher-teacher relationship

The more ideal the teacher-teacher cooperation, trust, support, interaction and open communication, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation.

Characteristics and Value Orientation of Teachers

The stronger the teacher's "effect", the higher the enthusiasm and initiative of teachers in participating in curriculum reform, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation. "Efficacy" here refers to the teacher's self-confidence and corresponding attitude towards the successful implementation of the curriculum change plan. This self-confidence and attitude is based on certain knowledge, skills and abilities.

External environment characteristics of course implementation

The external environment of the school (government factors, community culture, etc.) is also an important factor affecting the implementation of the curriculum.

The power of government agencies

Government agencies are an important force influencing curriculum reform. The greater the consistency between the curriculum reform of a school and the needs of the school's location, the more it can receive the support of the local government, and the degree of curriculum implementation is likely to be greater. Of course, the government's support for curriculum reform does not mean that the school should passively conform to the current status of the locality, but must give full play to the subjectivity of school education and make constructive criticism and transcendence of the local status quo through curriculum reform. Only in this way can the government realize the value of curriculum reform and can give more support and help to curriculum reform.

Community support

Curriculum changes can be integrated into the community culture, the greater the degree of curriculum implementation. The mutual penetration of school education and community culture, showing the trend of integrated development, is a major feature of the current era. Therefore, curriculum reform should not be isolated from the community culture, but should be consciously seeking to integrate with the community. This integration includes both active adaptation and recognition of community culture, as well as criticism and transcendence of community culture. In this way, curriculum changes will be recognized by students' parents and assisted by community political, economic and cultural institutions, which will greatly increase the chances of successful course implementation.