What Does an Intensivist Do?

Empiricism is an epistemological doctrine that holds that human knowledge originates in feelings and is based on the perception of feelings. Representative philosophers include Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. Empiricism was born in ancient Greece. It has a history of more than 2,400 years. During this period, it was constantly in dispute with two other doctrines: one was a theory of talent, which advocated the idea that knowledge belongs to an innate nature; the other was a rationalism, which advocated that only rational reasoning rather than empirical observation Provides the most reliable theoretical knowledge system. However, although the above-mentioned disputes have never been interrupted, the conflicts between them have sometimes been fierce and sometimes moderated.

Empiricist

Empiricism is an epistemological doctrine that holds that human knowledge originates in feelings and is based on the perception of feelings. representative

Basically it can be divided into two types of schools: mild empiricism and radical empiricism. The former believes that all conscious concepts originate from perception, but at the same time acknowledge that the functions of consciousness (such as the function of memory, imagination, and language) are inherent abilities. In contrast, the latter's viewpoint is more radical, publicly proclaiming that not only the content of the idea, but the entire process of the idea cannot have internal capabilities, but can only be learned.

Since the 16th century, the empirical vs. rationalist debate has erupted again in a gentle way. F. Bacon emphasizes the role of perceptual experience in cognition based on experimental science. At the same time, he did not confine human knowledge to perceptual experience, but acknowledged the necessity of rational knowledge. He believes that only by combining perceptual and rational, and using scientific experiments and objective analysis, can we overcome the confusion of knowledge and promote the progress of knowledge. Following Bacon, J. Locke endeavored to affirm the principles of empiricism through his critique of the conceptual theory of talents represented by Descartes and the theory of bulls represented by GW Leibniz. Locke pointed out that human adaptation is inherent, and the human mind is like a blank piece of paper without any talented mark or idea scheme on it. As for how various ideas and knowledge are written on this white paper and enter the human mind, Locke gives the answer in his book "Human Understanding": "All our knowledge is based on Above experience; in the final analysis, knowledge is derived from experience. "In concretely demonstrating this principle, Locke adopted a method similar to modern psychology. He reduced all knowledge to ideas, and all ideas can be analyzed as simple ideas. He asserted that simple ideas are inseparable and are the fixed and simplest elements that constitute knowledge. All simple audience thoughts come from external senses or introspection, that is, from external experience or internal experience. The human mind's ability to deal with these simple ideas has three main types: one is to combine several simple ideas into a composite idea; the second is to examine the two ideas (not simple ideas or composite ideas) side by side to form a relationship idea The third is to separate some ideas from all other ideas that exist at the same time, that is, to sample and form general ideas. At this point, as the master of empiricism, Locke completed the system of empirical epistemology, and thus launched a long-term indomitable confrontation with rationalism.

All knowledge comes from experience and can be traced back to its origins; not only are there no talented or innate propositions. Radical empiricists are the only ones who emphasize sensory experience and deny rational thinking. In their view, rational knowledge is abstract and indirect. The more abstract the thought, the more empty it is, the less reliable it is, and the farther it is from truth. Therefore, they hold the view of extreme nominalism, denying abstraction at all, denying universal concepts and universal propositions. For example, JS Muller believes that propositions of logic and mathematics also come from experience, and they are truth only because they are always found in experience, so they are not necessarily necessary truths in the strict sense, even May be amended by future experience.

I. Kant made some assumptions about the problems of rationalism and empiricism. Kant recognizes science as the highest form of human knowledge and confirms that it starts and synchronizes with human experience. However, Kant believes that the formation of human experience must inevitably have the inherent characteristics of the human mind. It is the human mind that produces the regular phenomena studied by science. Thus, the ultimate real knowledge, science, can be based on the innate possession of the mind, and thus the existence of it prior to experience, and the rational confirmation. Kant called this proposition combining a priori reason (form) and acquired experience (material) as a comprehensive proposition, so as to try to reconcile or compromise the contradiction between mere theory and empiricism and try to overcome the one-sidedness of the two.

For psychology, scholars are more inclined to accept empiricism than rationalism. This has become a gradual strengthening trend in countries such as Britain, the United States, the United States, and the United States. In these countries, empiricism is the dominant philosophy. According to modern trends, the opposition between empiricism and rationalism will be replaced by more familiar debates such as nature and empiricism, or nature and education. However, in the situation where empirical dominates the world, it is not without exception. For example, N. Chomsky tried to state that many of the sentence patterns of human language are inherently possessed and challenged the behaviorist-style empiricism. Chomsky, based on Descartes's linguistic perspective, puts the foundation of language on intuition rather than job hunting, and regards language as a logical system that is relatively unaffected by the control of other stimuli. Similarly, J. Piaget also proposed that the stages of cognitive development are unfolded in a logical way, rather than a form derived from the environment, although Piaget himself is not a naturalist. In short, the issue of individual knowledge acquisition remains to be related to the occurrence of the entire content of the individual's spiritual realm, so that its profound relationship can be fully revealed. Empiricism works hard, but it is clear that its theory is not the whole mystery.

Neo-Botanical rationalism combined with Christian ideas has long been dominant. Until the 13th century, with

"Empiricalists" pay attention to the information that the five senses bring to them, and believe in things that can be measured and proved. At the same time, they like to face various possibilities and a free and casual lifestyle. Kind of person.

"Empiricalists" are the most adventurous of the four types. What's most valuable to them is their resourcefulness, excitement, and fun. They live for action, impulse, and enjoyment of the present. When they think of something, they have the urge to do it immediately. They like to do it in one go and get things done in one go. The things you like (such as things you really like) can persist for a long time, and in most cases it is difficult to be persistent. They pay attention to the situation in front of them, can see clearly the situation in front of them, and can correctly estimate what needs to be done immediately. They advocate freedom and initiative, and rarely choose activities and environments that require too much structure and rules. They are adaptable, easy-going and practical. "Empiricalists" like skillful activities. They are often thought of as adventurous and adventurous.

"Empiricalists" like jobs that provide freedom, change, and action. They like jobs that have immediate effects. They like to be able to do their work ingeniously and successfully. Because they like to live a fun life, whatever they do must make them highly fun, so that they can be satisfied.

"Empiricalists" are divided into two categories: thinking empiricists and emotional empiricists. Some emotional empiricists do not fully conform to the personality characteristics of "empirical" people. This is because they are naturally willing to help others, hoping that their work can quickly change the lives of others, and they like to do what they think is very important. Meaning matters, which are not included in the "empirical" personality traits.

As a concept of epistemology, the term experience mainly refers to a cognitive stage and cognitive form that is different from rational cognition, that is, perceptual cognition. Rationalists distinguish people's opinions about things into general, error-prone beliefs and permanent, proven truth knowledge, and draw a deep gap between them. They claim that feeling experience can only produce opinions about the world of appearances, and because appearances can be deceived, such observational experience is unreliable and cannot be identified as knowledge. In view of this, rationalists advocate giving up feelings altogether and focusing on finding real knowledge from reason. Some rationalists believe that a lot of knowledge is born; the essence of learning is to rediscover the internal potential content through rational ability. They point out that in such a prior knowledge concept system, short and random temporary experiences must not find its place.

On the one hand, rationalists believe that knowledge exists only in a perfect independent world. The world we feel is just a copy of the mysterious image revealed by the perfect world of knowledge. This copy may be correct or wrong, so the perceptual knowledge is in an uncertain state, and the results of its understanding are only some sway. It's just a phantom. On the other hand, rationalists often despise practice and devalue the value of science. Because science comes from the knowledge that is used in practice in the world of observation and perception, rationalists believe that these sciences based on indeterminate knowledge are one-sided, and even do not fit the idea of talent. In an extreme sense, rationalists arbitrarily denied the possibility of science.

Beginning with Empedocle, a philosophy that was in stark contrast to the above thought, namely the empirical doctrine, was gradually emerging. Empiricism doubts the innate impressions on which rationality relies, thinking that they are purely imaginary illusions, and tries to show that it is observation that gives rise to knowledge. In response to the claim that rationalists give up perceptual experience, radical empiricists claim that only observers and perceptors are the only effective source of knowledge; in fact, human perceptual experience can discover and reveal truth. Thus, it promotes the empirical research perception system. This is also the beginning of psychology.

Empedocles

The first empiricist in history unknowingly launched a typical psychological project for his philosophical purpose. In his opinion, the rationalist's claim that man is attracted to the mysterious connotation of his own soul and learns essentially as a memory, and obtains knowledge through such learning is difficult to establish. Talking about so-called innate ideas before the actual knowledge about genetics is available, can only be a shortcut to get rid of philosophical or scientific problems, so this claim cannot be verified. Empiricism hopes to maintain the view that knowledge originates in perception by finding out the functioning of perception, and eventually disproves the source of knowledge that is impossible for reason and innate nature.