What Does a Developmental Psychologist Do?

Developmental psychology is the study of the characteristics and rules of psychological occurrence and development in the life-span of an individual from the beginning of fertilization to birth, maturity and aging. In short, it is the study of the psychological development of an individual's life. Features and laws.

Developmental psychology is the study of the characteristics and rules of psychological occurrence and development in the life-span of an individual from the beginning of fertilization to birth, maturity and aging. In short, it is the study of the psychological development of an individual's life. Features and laws.

Chinese name

Developmental psychology

Foreign name

DevelopmentPsychology

Applied discipline

psychology

Developmental Psychology Research Content

Developmental psychology studies the psychological development of an individual's life. In this research of psychological development throughout the life, there are mainly two issues involved: one is the theoretical issue of the principles or laws of psychological development, and the other is the psychological characteristics of each age of individual development. ^[1]

Fundamentals of Developmental Psychology

The role of genetics and the environment in psychological development;

External and internal causes of psychological development;

Relationship between continuous psychological development and developmental stages. ^[1]

Age characteristics of developmental psychology

The age classification criteria, the typical data currently available to divide the life stages, can be classified into the following categories:

Physiological development is used as the dividing standard: For example, Berman uses endocrine glands as staging criteria, such as the thymus period (young period), pineal gland period (childhood period), gonadal period (youth period), endocrine peak period (adult period), and endocrine Lack of period (senile age).

Take intellectual development as the criterion: For example, Piaget uses mental development as the basis. He divides the psychological development from birth to maturity into: sensorimotor phase (or sensory action phase, 0-2 years old); pre-operation phase (or pre-yunsi) Period, 2-7 years); specific operation phase (or specific operation thinking period, 7-12 years old); formal operation phase (or formal operation thinking period 12-15 years old).

Based on personality development characteristics: For example, Eriksson is based on personality development. Human psychological development can be divided into: trust vs. suspicion (0-2 years old); autonomy vs. shyness or doubt (2-4 years old) ); Sense of initiative versus guilt (ages 4-7); sense of diligence versus sense of inferiority (ages 7-12); sense of identity versus sense of chaos (age 12-18); sense of intimacy versus loneliness (age 18-25); Feeling of reproduction versus stagnation (25-50 years); sense of perfection versus disappointment (senile age).

Take the characteristics of activities as the criterion: For example, Airy Corning and Davydov divided the psychological development of preliminary maturity into: direct emotional sexual activity (0-1 years old); manipulation of physical activities (1-3 years old) Play activities (3-7 years old); Kimu learning activities (7-11 years old); socially beneficial activities (11-15 years old); professional learning activities (15-18 years old).

Life events are used as the dividing criteria: Generally, adulthood (after 18 years of age) is divided into life events: early adulthood (18-35 years old), choosing a career, and establishing a family; mid-adulthood (35-55 or 60 years old), achieving a career, Raising children; late adulthood (after 55 or 60 years old) children grow up and leave the family, retired, etc. On the basis of the above two stages, it is divided into the following sub-stages, such as early adult transition (leaving from the family, 17-22 years old); entering the adult world (22-28 years old); undergoing 30 years old transition (28-33 years old) Settle down (33-40 years old); middle-aged crisis (40-45 years old); get out of crisis (45-50 years old); experience a mid-life transition (50-55 years old); mid-life peak (55-60 years old) ); Late adult turn (60-65 years); late adult (after 65 years). ^[1]

Developmental psychology development

Research on developmental psychology has a process of development. As mentioned earlier, developmental psychology studies individual psychological development. In the study of individual psychological development, childhood (including adolescents) is the most studied part. This part constitutes the main content of child psychology. The research on the psychological development of the whole life was proposed later. ^[1]

Birth of Developmental Psychology

Scientific child psychology was born in the second half of the 19th century. German physiologist and experimental psychologist Pryor is the true founder of child psychology. Prairie's "Children's Psychology" in 1882 was recognized as the first scientific and systematic work on child psychology.

Evolution of developmental psychology

The emergence, formation, evolution and development of Western child psychology can be roughly divided into four stages: ^[1]

1. Work before 1882: Preparatory period before the late 19th century, driven by the development of modern society, modern natural sciences, and modern education, and after the promotion of children's research by many scientists, it was finally born in the late 19th century Scientific child psychology.

2. Research from 1882 to World War I: This period was the period of the formation of Western child psychology, that is, a group of psychologists appeared in Europe and the United States, and began to use observation and experimental methods to study the psychological development of children. Pryor is the most outstanding founder. In addition, after Pryor, there are some pioneers and pioneers, such as Hall in the United States, Baldwin, Dewey, Cartel, Binay in France, and Steinlen in Germany. Their respective achievements have contributed to the establishment and development of this discipline.

3. The period from World War I to World War II was a period of differentiation and development of Western child psychology. Due to the development of the whole psychology, the research and writings of child psychology have developed rapidly in quantity and quality. Especially various psychological schools, such as psychoanalysis, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, etc., a large number of publications of children's psychology books with different perspectives and styles, a large number of specialized child psychology publications, and child psychology in universities The establishment of specialized topics, the establishment of various child psychology research organizations, and the emergence of various child psychologists, such as Piaget in Switzerland, Gesell in the United States, the Bullers in Austria, and Walloon in France, etc. This shows that child psychology has reached a relatively mature stage.

4. Development after the Second World War: After the Second World War, the evolution and development period of Western children's psychology was mainly manifested in two aspects. The first was the evolution of theoretical viewpoints. Some influences of the original school gradually decreased, such as Hall's rehearsal. Shi Tailun's personality school and Gestalt school, etc .; although some still have influence, they are no longer the content of the old time, but have appeared in new attitudes, such as quiz studies. Although there are many controversies, they are still very much in the West today. Popular, scales are more and more, and the scope of content is also getting wider and wider. In-depth discussion of intelligence and genetic factors makes the test research more perfect; some schools openly hold the banner of innovation, which mainly refers to the new psychoanalytic school And neo-behavioralism. The second is the evolution of its body research work, especially since the 1970s, many topics in child psychology have progressed and been innovative. Not only have they conducted in-depth research on early childhood psychological development, but they have also extensively explored the entire process of individual life. development of.

Psychoanalytic School of Developmental Psychology

Jung of the psychoanalytic school was the earliest psychologist to study the developmental theory of adult psychology. According to Jung, human development is mainly the development of the mind, and the sluggishness of conception means the confusion or death of life. Jung's research on the individual development, especially the adult's psychological development, began in the 1920s and formed a certain theory in the 1930s. His view of development mainly involves three aspects: First, he puts forward the perspective of the first half and the second half of life. He believes that during the first half and the second half of the life cycle, personality develops along different lines, and there is a boundary between the age of 20 and the age of 40. In the first half of his life, the personality of the first half of life is more outwardly expanding and dedicated to the outside world. Second, he attaches importance to the "middle-aged crisis." About 40 years old, with more spiritual development, individuals once felt that eternal goals and ambitions have lost their meaning. As a result, I began to feel depressed, dull and urgency. Middle-aged life, marked by spiritual transformation, began to focus on grasping the inner world from mastering the outside world. The heart urges people to listen to consciousness and learn the potentials that have not been recognized; the third is to discuss the psychology of the elderly, especially the psychology before death. Elderly people try to understand the nature of life when facing death, and believe that life after death should be a continuation of their own life. ^[1]

Developmental psychology

1. The earliest two books on developmental psychology in life: American psychologist Herring Worth first proposed to pursue the whole picture of human psychological development. Unsatisfied with studying children's psychology in isolation, he published "Introduction to Developmental Psychology", the world's first book on developmental psychology throughout life. At the same time, another American psychologist, Gudinav, also made the same point, and wrote "Development Psychology" that surpassed Herringworth's work scientifically and systematically, and published it in 1935.

2. Systematic research on adulthood: Since 1957, the "Psychology Yearbook" of the United States began to use the name "developmental psychology" instead of the usual "children's psychology".

Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

There are many research methods of developmental psychology, including observation method, conversation method, clinical method, questionnaire method, psychological test and experimental method (laboratory experiment and natural experiment), which are separately discussed below: ^[1]

Developmental Psychology Observation

Observation refers to a purposeful, conscious, and long-term awareness activity. In scientific research, the use of observations can be used to obtain facts about things. Therefore, observation becomes a method of scientific research. Observation refers to a method of making a comprehensive, in-depth, and detailed observation of a thing with a purpose and a plan in order to reveal the nature and laws of such a thing. Due to the different purposes of observation, it can be divided into various observation methods. From the observation time can be divided into long-term observation and regular observation. Long-term observations are systematic observations that are carried out continuously over a relatively long period of time (usually up to weeks, months, or years). Many psychologists record and analyze diaries or biographies of children's psychological development.

Developmental psychology

The conversation method (or interview method) is a way to understand the psychological development of participants through conversation, because speech is one of the important external manifestations of a person's psychological activity and its development. The conversation method is more commonly used in developmental psychology. Piaget's clinical method actually belongs to the category of conversation method. It is a special method of conversation, that is, conversation plus experiment. The core problem of the conversation method is to collect data, analyze the results, and draw conclusions based on the conversation between the principal and the participants.

Clinical Approach to Developmental Psychology

Piaget's clinical method (or diagnostic method) is essentially the talking method, which uses a combination of naturalistic observation, testing, and clinical methods of psychiatry. However, Piaget has continued to improve clinical methods. Initially, it was purely verbal conversation; then verbal conversation was the main, supplemented with manipulation or manipulation of physical objects; the final revised clinical law was based on manipulation of physical objects, supplemented by verbal problems. Combining manipulation with physical objects, conversation, and direct observation.

Developmental Psychology Questionnaire

Questionnaire method is a quite old research method in psychological research. The so-called questionnaire method is to divide the subject to be studied into detailed outlines, prepare concise and easy-to-answer questions, print it into a book, and send it to relevant personnel in various places to request a best-effort reply, or combine it with the school's examinations, tests and competitions A way for students to try their best to solve the problem based on the recovered answers, after statistical processing or text summarization. The classification of the questionnaire form is more complicated. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two categories, one is classification by question, and the other is classification by questionnaire object. There are two types of questions: open and closed. According to the classification of questionnaire objects, the questionnaires can be divided into individual questionnaires, group questionnaires and mailing questionnaires.

Developmental Psychological Test

Psychological test is an important tool for "quantity" and "degree" of psychological phenomena. It was born in Britain, started in France, thrived in the United States, and spread throughout the world. Psychological test is a tool to measure people's intelligence, ability tendency or personality characteristics and individual differences. It consists of questions that can cause and measure typical sexual behavior. These test questions are used to measure the scale, called scales. That is, the psychological test is just a behavior-like group, and individual differences are inferred based on this behavior-like group. It is different from general examinations. Each test question must meet the requirements of standardization, and it has certain reliability and validity. Therefore, it is more objective. Types of Psychological Tests Psychological tests are diverse and can be classified according to different criteria. Classified according to the function of the test, there are ability test, academic performance test, personality (personality) test. Classified according to the test method, there are individual tests and group tests; classified by the test materials, there are written tests, non-written tests; classified by the purpose of the test, there are descriptive tests, diagnostic tests, predictive tests; The highest behavioral test, typical behavioral test; classified according to the application of the test, there are education tests, occupational tests, clinical tests; the age characteristics of the subjects, including infant tests, adult tests and elderly tests.

Laboratory Experiments in Developmental Psychology

The so-called laboratory experiments refer to experiments conducted under specially created conditions, sometimes using special instruments and equipment. The methods used to study the characteristics of the development of psychological processes such as perception, perception, memory and thinking are often laboratory experiments. And in the research of social development, experimental methods are more and more welcomed by researchers. The reason for its popularity is related to its characteristics. 1. The main feature of laboratory experiments is that they use laboratory experimental methods to study the characteristics of various psychological processes and their various psychological phenomena. The main reason is that laboratory experiments can precisely control experimental conditions so that researchers can obtain The answer to the problem. 2. Experimental instruments of developmental psychology: The use of experimental instruments is of great help to the research of developmental psychology. With the deepening of developmental psychology research, more and more modern experimental instruments and technical equipment are used, such as recording, video, electronic computers, modern children and adolescent observation rooms, laboratories, etc. It is helpful, especially for computer systems and video systems. The use of these instruments has modernized experimental research and greatly improved the level of experimental research in developmental psychology.

Natural Experiments in Developmental Psychology

The so-called natural experiment means that under the natural circumstances of the subjects' daily activities (games, learning, labor), some conditions affecting him are caused or changed to study the changes in their psychological characteristics. Many studies, such as social development, can only be conducted in natural contexts, not in specially created laboratories, or they will distort the research questions. Once natural experiments are used in developmental psychology, they are welcomed by researchers. Especially in recent years, the trend of the "ecological movement" in the research of psychology has made researchers pay more attention to natural experiments. Natural experimental methods are increasingly used in developmental psychology research.

Major Theories of Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology Freud

Freud is the founder of the Austrian psychiatrist, neurologist, and psychoanalytic school. He put forward the stages of psychological development:

Lip period (0 1.5 years);

Anal period (1.5 to 3 years old);

Pre-genital period (3-6 years old);

Incubation period (6-11 years old);

Puberty (from the age of 11 or 13).

Developmental psychology

Erikson believes that the development of self-consciousness lasts for a lifetime. He divided the process of the formation and development of self-consciousness into eight stages. The order of these eight stages is determined by heredity, but whether each stage can be successfully passed But it is determined by the environment, so this theory can be called "psychosocial" stage theory. Every stage cannot be ignored.

First stage infancy (from 0-2 years)

Early childhood (2 to 4 years)

The third stage of preschool or game period (from 4 to 7 years old)

The fourth stage of school age (7-12 years old)

The fifth stage of youth (12--18 years old)

Stage 6 Early adulthood (18--25 years)

Stage 7 mid-adult (about 50 years of age)

The eighth stage of old age (late adulthood)

Developmental Psychology

Watson believes that psychology is not a science of consciousness, but should be based on the behavior of humans and animals. The basic elements of behavior are stimulation and response. The behavior formula is: S-R. The research method of psychology must abolish the introspection method and adopt the observation method and the experimental method.

(1) Denying the role of heredity

(2) Exaggerating the role of environment and education

Starting from the S-R formula, Watson believes that environment and education are the only conditions for behavioral development.

A. Differences in structure and training in early childhood are sufficient to explain the differences in later behavior.

As soon as children are born, they are structurally different, but they are just simple reactions, and more complex behaviors come entirely from the environment, especially early training.

B. Watson put forward the universal theory of education

C. Watson's Learning Theory

He believes that conditioning is the foundation of learning. The deciding condition for learning is external stimulus. External stimuli are controllable, so no matter how complicated the behavior is, it can be obtained through learning. This law is completely suitable for the purpose of behaviorism to predict and control behavior, so Watson attaches great importance to learning. Watson's view of learning provides justification for his universalism of education.

Skinner Developmental Psychology

1. The principle of enhanced control of children's behavior

(1) Skinner believes that strengthening is the basis for shaping behavior.

Skinner believes that most of human behavior is operational, and any learned behavior is related to timely reinforcement. As long as we understand the reinforcement effect and manipulate the reinforcement technology, we can control the behavior response, and we can shape the expectations of an educator at will. Children

the behavior of.

(2) Strengthening plays a role in the development of behavior.

If behavior is not strengthened, it will subside. Snackin thinks that children want to do something "just want the attention of adults". Once an adult notices a child's behavior, such as praising or criticizing their behavior, it reinforces that behavior.

Therefore, the adult can ignore the child's bad behavior, such as anger and unreasonable behavior, and take "cold treatment" to exclude his attention. This kind of bad behavior in children will subside without reinforcement.

(3) Skinner emphasizes timely strengthening

Skinner emphasizes timely reinforcement, and he believes that delayed reinforcement is not conducive to the development of human behavior. Educators need to reinforce in time what they want to see in children.

2. The actual control of children's behavior

(1) The role of the nursery box

(2) Behavior correction

(3) Teaching machine and program teaching

Skinner believes that the content, methods, and management practices of school education are tiring in the United States and other countries. Students' learning lacks autonomy and interest, so that some students are tired of school, truancy, and drop out. There is a large difference in the teaching level of teachers. Many students in the class can only take care of a small number of students, etc. These are not conducive to the education and development of students.

Developmental Psychology

1. Recent Development Zone

The zone of proximal development theory refers to the "gap between the actual level of development of a child's independent problem solving and the potential level of problem solving under the guidance of an adult or in a capable peer collaboration."

Vygotsky believes that children have two levels of development: one is the child's current level, that is, the level of child psychological function formed by a certain completed development system, such as the child has fully mastered certain concepts and Rules; the second is the level of development to be achieved. The difference between these two levels is the "recent development zone."

2. Teaching should be ahead of development

Based on the above ideas, Vygotsky proposed that "teaching should be ahead of development." This is his most important theory on the relationship between teaching and development. In other words, teaching "can be defined as artificial development". Teaching determines the development of intelligence, and this decisive effect is reflected not only in the content, level and characteristics of intellectual development, but also in the speed of intellectual development.

Questions about the optimal period of study

How to make the most of teaching, Vygoskey emphasized the "best period of learning". If it is detached from the optimal age for learning a certain skill, it is disadvantageous from a development point of view, and it will cause obstacles to children's intellectual development. Therefore, to begin a certain type of teaching, we must assume maturity and development as the prerequisite, but more importantly, the teaching must first be based on the psychological function that is beginning to form and walk ahead of the formation of psychological function.

Developmental psychology

1. It belongs to the development view of interaction between internal and external factors. He emphasized both the internal and external causes of interaction, as well as the continuous quantitative and qualitative changes in psychology in this interaction.

2. The nature and reasons of psychological development:

Psychology, intelligence, and thinking are not originated from innate maturity or acquired experience, but originate from the actions of the subject.

The essence of psychological development: the subject's adaptation to the object through action

The essence of adaptation is to achieve a balance between the body and the environment.

Adaptation: Assimilation, Adaptation

The process of adaptation: balance-imbalance-balance ...

3. Factors affecting psychological development

(1) Mature

Maturity: refers to the growth of the body, especially the maturation of the nervous system and endocrine system.

For example, eye-hand coordination that occurs during infancy is a necessary condition for constructing an infant's action schema. However, to make this possibility a reality, maturity can only be enhanced through functional exercises and minimal acquisition experience.

(2) Physical environment

The interaction between the individual and the environment is a source of knowledge.

Physical experience: refers to the role of individuals and objects to obtain the characteristics of objects;

Logic-mathematical experience: refers to the result of the individual's understanding of the coordination between actions.

According to Piaget, knowledge comes from actions (actions play an organizational or coordinating role), not from objects.

(3) Social environment

Social environment, which includes the role of language and education, that is, the interaction between people and the transfer of social culture.

Learners' social experiences may accelerate or hinder the development of their cognitive schema.

(4) Balance process that plays a self-regulating role

Balance process: regulate the interaction between the individual (maturity) and the environment (including the physical environment and the social environment), thereby causing a new construction of the cognitive schema.

Piaget takes balance as the basic process of cognitive development.

4. The structure of children's psychological development

(1) Schema: the cognitive structure produced in response to a specific situation

The original schema was derived from innate heredity, and showed simple reflections, such as fist reflections and sucking reflections. The change of schema is accomplished through two processes of assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation: It is the integration of external elements into a structure that is being formed or has been formed.

Adaptation: the change in the structure of assimilation affected by the assimilated elements.

Changing from eating milk to eating, this requires changing the original body movements and taking new actions to adapt to the environment.

(2) Balance and imbalance

Individuals achieve the balance between the body and the environment through assimilation and adaptation. If the body and the environment are out of balance, changes in behavior are needed to restore balance. This process of constant balance-imbalance-balance ... is the process of adaptation, which is the nature and cause of psychological development.

5. Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. Perceptual motor stage (0-2 years old)

At this stage, children do not yet have the language and thinking to explore the world around them mainly through feelings and actions.

2. Pre-computing stage (2-7 years old)

At this stage children's various sensorimotor behavioral patterns begin to internalize into the appearance pattern. Because of the emergence and development of language, children are increasingly used to replace or reproduce external things with imagery symbols, so at this stage, children have emerged with imagery thinking.

3. Specific calculation stages (7-11 years old)

Children at this stage began to have logical thinking and computing skills, and have successively acquired the concept of conservation. But the form and content of the calculation are still based on specific things.

4. Form operation stage (over 12 years old)

Also known as the propositional operation phase, the biggest feature is that children's thinking has been freed from the constraints of specific things, distinguished from content and form, can reason based on various possible assumptions, and has begun to approach the thinking level of adults. ^[1]