What Is Nanism?

Democracy (Democracy ^{[1] in} foreign language, or translation of democracy , democracy , old translation of Mr. Democracy , German ), originated in Greek. Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, referred to "democratia" in the book "History", a term consisting of demoe, "people," and kratos, "power," "rule," and "governance." A shorter root term, the basic meaning of democracy is "rule of the people" ^[1] . Subsequent researchers also often understand democracy in the sense of etymology, and regard "rule by the people" as the most essential meaning of democracy ^[2] .

Democracy

Democracy (Foreign Democracy ^[1]

concept

There have been many different concepts of implementable democracy among political theorists.

As we all know, some Westerners are very proud of their democracy. These people's views on China can be divided into two types. The first view is that China is a typical centralized country. The other view is that the Chinese nation has been in various restraints from beginning to end. People have become accustomed to it. The life that accompanies the chain. Both views clearly have a superior sense of superiority, although the second view

Let's explore the classic resources of Chinese democratic thought together. Starting from the discussion of the ancient Confucian thought and politics-related community perspectives, we will see that in the Confucian tradition, there are many ideas

To a large extent, rights-based liberalism is centered on the following issues: individuals and society, private and public, natural law and statute law, rights and obligations, the coercive power of the state (ie, the legitimacy of authority), the concept of justice, and many more. The content of Chinese Confucianism is obviously different, such as personal cultivation and social morality, the function of traditional ritual education, and how ritual education can make society and politics harmonious and vibrant, such as the coordination of social and political roles through the proper ordering of names Cultural models, advocacy, etc.

Starting from Dewey's thoughts on democracy, it is easier to understand what is "Confucian democracy". To Dewey, the foundation of democracy is the human community of communication. In the human community of communication, those deliberately seeking new and publicity for personal purposes will be inhibited to a considerable extent. This situation is affirmative, because suppressing individual publicity is conducive to maintaining people's commonality and better ensuring community communication. Generally, such suppression cannot come from the outside, neither from the law, nor from repressive "public opinion." As long as there is still a possibility of communication between people, they will try to tolerate differences. At the same time, in order to continue communication, they usually try to avoid deliberate innovation.

Here we encounter the biggest problem in establishing Confucian democracy, namely the pluralism of culture and belief. Why in a society that values the continuity and unity of cultural traditions, at the level of thought and belief, can it tolerate so many complex and multicultural forms?

To a large extent, Chinese culture is a multicultural one. Many Westerners always doubt the fact that they believe that Asian culture is unitary, which is an extremely ridiculous old concept. Of course, from another perspective, China, like the United States and most European societies, has ethnic and linguistic identity, which is even more apparent in some areas. Perhaps, overall, it is easier for China to reach some kind of true consensus than most Western societies.

It is often difficult for Westerners to understand how Confucianism can gain a place in multiculturalism. When using terms such as "consensus" and "pluralism" in the Western sense to understand China, they often cannot clearly understand The meaning of these concepts in Chinese culture is actually very different from that in the West. For example, a traditional Chinese intellectual is likely to be both Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist. This statement will confuse most Westerners. Because, in the eyes of Westerners, individuals must be loyal to their philosophical or religious positions, just as they are loyal to their religious beliefs.

Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism can coexist harmoniously in Chinese culture, not only in a single culture, but more importantly, the integration of the three religions can be reflected in specific individuals. In this way, it is necessary for Westerners to understand what the corresponding term of Western pluralism is in Chinese culture. We know that in Confucian society, cultural consensus is often expressed on the level of aesthetics and practice, rather than on the level of thinking or reason, which is very close to Dewey's democratic thought. The Western position that "right thinking" is to be loyal to one's religion is completely different from the aesthetic significance of Confucianism and Dewey's pragmatism.

In Chinese history, no matter how diverse the cultural forms are, traditions strive to achieve harmony and unification among different cultural forms, and regard this as social goodness. In contrast, Western liberalism advocates tolerance of different voices. Randy · Randy Peerenboom said in comparing these two points: "Freedom of thought is the core of contemporary Western liberal and democratic thought. The right to be able to think independently is our most cherished right, and freedom of thought is everything else The cornerstone. "The pursuit of freedom of thought must inevitably pursue a rational pluralism of belief, and it must inevitably rebel against all dogma's conservative and orthodox views.

"The Analects of Confucius" said: "The use of rituals, harmony is expensive. The way of the first king, Sri Lanka is beautiful; small and big are for it. Something is not possible, knowledge and harmony, not courtesy, nor feasible." The term "in Confucianism" means the harmonious coexistence of various elements. This meaning can be said to be very strong and clear. Under this guiding ideology, the premise of Confucianism's pursuit of social harmony is that it defaults on various components and tries to make it harmonious. On the one hand, Confucianism implies the same belief in a common mode of rationality; on the other hand, from the perspective of aesthetics, the standards of strength and comparison are set in advance.

If we look at the difference between "right to think" and "right thinking", we will find that the problematics of Chinese and Westerners are very different. The Chinese do not think that thought and action can be integrated and separated from each other. In Chinese tradition, thought, temperament and action are interrelated, which is completely contrary to the dominant ideology of Western tradition. Westerners believe that thinking, action and emotion are all independent.

In Chapter Two of "Thinking From the Han: Self, Truth, and Transcendence in Chinese and Western Culture", co-authored with Hao Dawei, we compared ancient Chinese intellectuals with traditional Western cultures. Philosophers are different in philosophical care. We quote Angus Graham, who said that Chinese intellectuals are concerned about "Where is Dao?" Western philosophers are concerned about "What is truth?" Ge Ruihan revealed the obvious difference between Chinese and Western cultural issues, That is, when Chinese and Western cultures face the question of how people should determine their status and direction in nature and human society, the answers are completely different.

The basic questions that ancient Greek philosophers thought were "what are things?", "How is the world constituted?" In short, "what is this?" This is what has been valued by western philosophers since then Ontological issues. Starting from this, Western philosophers distinguish between facts and principles, and invent a set of categories to understand the world. The questioning of "how to get the Tao" by ancient Chinese intellectuals has led them to continuously pursue a reasonable lifestyle. This lifestyle mode is also a cultural direction, which enables them to develop themselves on the basis of the "Tao", and Let them display their talents in the world they live in.

Many people think that whenever China's entire society begins to reflect, moral and political order will be easily destroyed. Naturally, the Chinese will pay special attention to social harmony. These people also believe that the Chinese are particularly concerned about the social moral order, because they believe that the social moral order is the guarantee of social stability. It can be seen that the Chinese intellectuals mainly pursue "Tao". On the contrary, they believe that the ancient Greek philosophers always seemed to seek the truth freely and calmly. This is undoubtedly a simplistic comparison. Simply comparing "Truth-Seekers" and "Way-seekers" can sometimes be misleading. The most obvious point is that this view implies that Chinese culture seems to attach more importance to social and political harmony than Western culture.

In fact, both Chinese and Western societies are very concerned about how to maintain social stability. In a multi-ethnic society with many languages, such as ancient Greek society, it was not easy to find a specific and effective way between different languages, myths, customs and etiquette. The principles and standards that can guarantee social harmony are abstracted from the beginning and then universally applicable. In both the positive and negative aspects, in the West, the pursuit of Truth, which begins with a capital "T," is the purpose of social and political stability. On the positive side, it shows that there is a certain standard in the historical process, which sets the foundation for common values and practices. On the negative side, it means that we should tolerate those who disagree with existing truths. It can be seen that these two meanings are both due to the development of democracy.

After comparing the difference between "people who seek truth" and "people who seek Tao", we find that it is easier to promote pluralism if a society has a clear distinction between thought and moral behavior. If people cannot put their thoughts into action, their freedom of thought is also limited. Cultural traditions like China do not distinguish between thought and behavior, and think that thinking is an act. In the West, it is our difference in thinking and action that allows us to think completely and freely. If Western thinkers also think that thinking is action, then we cannot enjoy leisurely enjoyment of existing freedom.

It can be said that the future development of Confucian democracy will take the form of pragmatic pluralism, which must be based on the Chinese people's ability to accept multiple beliefs and actions. This diversity of beliefs and actions is always accompanied by democracy, especially when it adopts a form of communityism.

Fortunately, as a whole, Confucianism does not lack the resources to realize Confucian democracy. In order to promote true social harmony, Confucianism emphasizes emotional tacit understanding, which is expressed through social roles and behaviors consistent with etiquette. Such etiquette conceals the differences between people on the conscious level. In the process of using etiquette to communicate, people pay more attention to the Tao that has a strong sense of moral practice, rather than discovering an objective "truth." In such a moral practice, people no longer simply reveal Your own emotions, that way of showing your feelings too casually, are generally unacceptable. It can be seen that the unity behind the etiquette is difficult to express in words. Because the practice of etiquette has the most basic aesthetic characteristics, people can use etiquette to communicate basically without controversy.

There is no doubt that the pluralism of thought and belief will challenge China's consistent Confucian ideological tradition. Confucianism may also be incapable of fighting. In the United States, people are asking every day whether our civic culture will survive tomorrow. The same is true for China. In the future, no matter how many difficulties China encounters, there will be no choice but to meet the challenges of modernization with its rich traditional resources.

In terms of the relationship between individuals and communities, the Chinese Confucian community model is very different from Western liberalism. Westerners care about how to limit state power and preserve individual autonomy as much as possible. In many ways, the doctrine of the relationship between individuals and communities in Chinese tradition is close to Dewey's point of view. For example, in Dewey's view, the cohesion of the human community helps to establish individual values.

Both Confucius and Dewey believe that people are "person-in-concrete-context". The concept of "individual" in liberalism is not only irrelevant to Chinese culture, but it is also invisible in American pragmatism. Confucianism neither strictly distinguishes "means and ends" like the liberal democratic model, treats society as a means to achieve individual goals, nor treats individuals as a means of society, as in the groupist model. Both Confucianism and Dewey believe that the broad purpose of social groups arises from personal and community goals, and they are almost identical in this regard. In Confucianism, the privileges and duties of the family model are inseparable. Expanding beyond the family, it has become a reasonable basis for government rule.

"The Analects of Confucius" also said: "He is also a filial piety, and those who are good offenders are fresh; those who are not good offenders are good offenders, and those who are not good are also. The essence of this is! "This shows that the community based on ritualism is not pure, but focuses on the endurance in the human-oriented spirit. Therefore, when we analyze the "religious" nature of Chinese society, we must regard the community established on the basis of etiquette and religion as the realistic basis of "religious" practice.

In Confucianism, ritualized human roles and relationships between people have no transcendental meaning in the Western sense. Contrary to the significance of Western spirit surpassing the earth, human roles and relationships in Confucianism refer to cultural heritage with forms of community life. This cultural heritage is an endless source of spiritual development and religious life. In order to understand the Chinese spirit, it is not enough to understand the categories of "" (generally translated as Heaven) and "the way", but also to understand the ethics and ethics that can unify the community under the goal of pursuing public good, Understand the social roles and interpersonal relationships above ritualism, that is, "ritual" is an important category to understand the Chinese spirit. In fact, the etiquette system is the specific content of the two categories of "Tian" and "Tao" in community life. The concepts of "li", "sky" and "dao" fully express the Confucian cultural spirit that has a long history.

Dewey has expressed similar views. He said: "The community made up of causes and consequences is an infinite web in which we and our descendants live. It is so vast, unfathomable, and full of mysterious beings. This community is where we are As a symbol of weaving into one, our imagination has to call it the universe. This community is the embodiment of our feelings and thoughts. It is vast and boundless, so broad that intellectuals cannot grasp it ... This community is such a source, After shaping ethics, it has become a set of aggregates that guide individual behavior standards and personal cultivation goals. "

Regardless of pragmatism or Confucianism, cultural values are the achievements accumulated by the human community over a considerable period of time. That position of setting a certain supernatural realm to accommodate these values is untenable. The values cherished by religions with strong ideological meaning are the idealization of the characteristics of things related to nature. In order to prevent these idealized contents from being harmed on a secular level, these cultural values are shaped into a supernatural existence.

The Chinese respect their own traditional culture, and Christians are very attached to God, which seems to be somewhat equal. However, Confucian democracy, which respects ancestors and cultural heroes, is truly a "predecessor democracy." Although they are no longer alive, "their democracy" is still very lively. It is precisely this principle. When Confucius most proud disciple Zi Gong answered who was Confucius teacher, Zi Gong replied: "The way of culture and warfare is not on the ground, but on people. The younger. There is no way of culture and martial arts. Master does not learn? And what is the normal teacher? "The meaning of a philosopher is that he values and values created by others. The Chinese attach great importance to funerals, family continuity, filial piety, and fallen leaves to their roots. Their respect for their ancestors can be said to be a "religious" habit, and this is also a living social memory.

All in all, in traditional Confucianism, many ideas are about community life, and they reinforce the concept of Confucian democracy. Lee Seung-hwan proposed that we should no longer linger between liberal democracy and Confucian-style democracy, and we should seek some way to combine the two. This idea can be said in one phrase. If we hope that the cultural exchanges between China and the West can be more fruitful, we must expect that their mutual influence will deepen. But we know that Confucian democracy and western community-based democracy are incompatible with rights-based liberal democracy, especially in the relationship between individuals and society. We therefore hope that Confucian democracy is the fruit of this intensive dialogue between China and the West. It is the crystallization of the fusion of Chinese and Western beliefs. It is mainly formed in the dialogue between Chinese Confucianism and American pragmatism.