What Does a Cognitive Psychologist Do?

Cognitive psychology is divided into broad sense and narrow sense. Broad sense cognitive psychology refers to anyone who studies the cognitive process of people, which belongs to cognitive psychology. At present, the cognitive psychology commonly referred to in the Western psychological field refers to Cognitive psychology in the narrow sense, also known as information processing psychology, refers to the use of information processing perspectives and terminology, by analogy with computers, simulation, verification and other methods to study human cognitive processes, that human recognition The knowledge process is the process of receiving, encoding, storing, exchanging, operating, retrieving, extracting and using information, and summarizes this process into four system modes: perception system, memory system, control system, and response system. Emphasize that a person's existing knowledge and knowledge structure play a decisive role in his behavior and current cognitive activities. Its most significant achievement is groundbreaking research in the fields of memory and thinking.

Cognitive psychology

The basic idea of modern cognitive psychology is to regard people as information transmitters and information processing systems. It is proposed that there are three encodings in short-term memory:

Auditory coding is vocoding;

Visual coding is shape code;

Semantic coding means meaning code.

Modern cognitive psychology believes that people divide things into three codes according to their various characteristics and store them in three different locations, and then use sound, form, and meaning to retrieve this memory in three different ways.

Cognitive psychology, behavioral psychology, and humanistic psychology are also known as the troika of modern psychology!

Behavioral psychology

Dicar: Animals are only machines that occupy space, and their actions are only mechanical; humans are also machines, but they have a conscious soul added to the body.

1913-1930 was an early period of behaviorism. It was founded by American psychologist Watson on the basis of Pavlov's theory of conditioned reflection. He advocated that psychology should abandon too much subjective things such as consciousness and imagery. Observations and responses that can be measured objectively. Regardless of the intermediate link, Watson calls it "black box operation." He believes that human behavior is acquired the day after tomorrow, and the environment determines a person s behavior pattern. Whether it is normal behavior or morbid behavior is obtained through learning, it can also be changed, increased or eliminated through learning. After clarifying the regular relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses, we can predict responses based on stimuli, or infer stimuli based on responses, to achieve the purpose of predicting and controlling the behavior of animals and humans. He believes that behavior is the combination of various physical responses that organisms use to adapt to environmental stimuli. Some are expressed on the outside and some are hidden inside. In his eyes, there is no difference between humans and animals, and they all follow the same rules.

A new behaviorist theory emerged in 1930. The new behaviorists represented by Tolman corrected Watson's extreme views. They point out that there is an intermediate variable between the individual's stimulus and behavioral response. This intermediate variable refers to the individual's physical and psychological state at the time. They are the actual determinants of behavior. They include demand variables and cognitive variables. Demand variables are essentially motivations. They include sexuality, hunger, and safety requirements in the face of danger. Cognitive variables are abilities. They include object perception, motor skills, and so on.

In the new behaviorism, there is another branch of radical behaviorism. It is represented by Skinner. Skinner proposed operable conditioning based on Pavlov's classic conditioning. He created a "Skinner" Box ", a special device is installed in the box, and the food will appear when you press the lever once. He puts a hungry rat in the box and it will run around and explore freely. Occasionally, he will get food after pressing the lever. Rats are pressing the lever more and more frequently, that is, they learned how to get food by pressing the lever. Skinner named it operative reflex or instrumental condition. Food is a fortifier. The process of a certain frequency of response (ie behavior) is called reinforcement. Skinner believes that intensive training is the main mechanism for explaining the body's learning process.

Cognitive Psychological Era Spirit

Objectivism. The great development of science since the 18th century has shattered many things that were taken for granted or superstition. Mysticism is challenged. Positivism has an unprecedented market. Emphasizes empirical and social knowledge that can be used for objective observation.

The Contributions and Limitations of Behavioral Psychology in the Development of Psychology

It promotes objective research in psychology and expands the research field of psychology.

The prominent emphasis on behavior not only promotes the application of psychology, but also makes people see new hope.

And sometimes it makes people stronger.

Cognitive Psychology , Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology emerged in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s, and is one of the main schools of contemporary American psychology. The humanistic psychology school represented by Maslow, Rogers and others, parted ways with the psychoanalysis school and behaviorist school, forming the third trend of thought in psychology. Influenced by phenomenology and existential philosophy is obvious.

The spirit of the times: Anti-mainstream cultural movement. Dissatisfaction with society.

Founded by American psychologist AH Maslow, the representative is CR Rogers. Humanism is opposed to the tendency of vulgarization and animalization of people's psychology, so it is called the "three thoughts" in psychology.

1. Maslow's theory of self-actualization

Maslow believes that the psychological driving force of human behavior is not sexual instinct, but human needs. He divided them into two categories, seven levels, like a pyramid, and the physiological needs and safety needs from bottom to top. The need for belonging and love, the need for respect, the need for recognition, the need for aesthetics, and the need for self-realization.

First, physiological needs. Physiological needs refer to the most basic needs for human survival, including diet, sleep, sex, and drinking water.

Second, security needs. The need for safety refers to the further needs of human beings after meeting their physiological needs. It mainly refers to the sense of security that everyone often says, which is very important for people's normal work and life.

Third, the need for belonging and love. This level mainly refers to the rights and duties of founding a family or joining a group organization on the basis of satisfying the first two levels, to get their own identity and love.

Fourth, the need for respect refers to the need at a higher level, including two aspects: we are respected and respected by others.

Fifth, the need for knowledge mainly refers to our knowledge and understanding of knowledge and various phenomena.

Sixth, aesthetic need means that we find and appreciate beauty in our lives and work, which is a higher level of need.

Seventh, the need for self-realization refers to the realization of one's own life goals. It has no distinction between high and low and is based on human self-assessment as a standard.

Under normal circumstances, the emergence of the needs of the latter layer is based on the premise that the previous layer is satisfied, but it is not absolutely the case, and there is a mutual wave-like relationship between them. Maslow believes that human beings share the inner nature of truth, kindness, beauty, justice, joy, and have common values and moral standards. The key to achieving human self-realization is to improve people's "self-knowledge" or self-awareness, so that people can recognize themselves. The inherent potential or value of humanism is to promote human self-realization.

2. Rogers's theory of self.

Newborn babies do not have the concept of self. As he (she) interacts with others and the environment, he (she) begins to distinguish himself from non-self. After the initial self-concept was formed, the self-actualization trend of people began to activate. Driven by the motivation of self-actualization, children carried out various trial activities in the environment and produced a lot of experiences. Through the body's automatic valuation process, some experiences will make him feel satisfied and happy, and some will be the opposite. Satisfied experiences will make children seek to maintain and reappear, and dissatisfied and unpleasant experiences will make children try to avoid it. Among children seeking positive experiences, there is an experience produced by the care of others, and an experience produced by the respect of others. Unfortunately, the satisfaction of the child's need for care and respect depends entirely on others. (Including parents) is based on whether the child s behavior meets its value standards and behavior standards to determine whether to give care and respect. Therefore, the care and respect of others are conditional, and these conditions reflect the values of parents and society. Rogers said this This condition is a value condition. Children continue to experience these value conditions through their own behaviors. They will unconsciously internalize these values that belong to parents or others and become part of their self-structure. Gradually, children are forced to give up according to themselves. The evaluation process of the body evaluates the experience, and it becomes the evaluation of the experience with the internalized social value norms of the self, so that the child's self and experience are alienated. When there is a conflict between experience and self, the individual will Feel anxious about feeling threatened.

When the experience is inconsistent with the ego, the individual will use the defense mechanism (distortion, denial, selective perception) to process the experience to make it consistent with the self at the level of consciousness. If the defense is successful, the individual will not have an adaptation disorder. If the defense fails, the psychological adaptation disorder will occur. Rogers's human-centered treatment goal is to remove the part of the self that was not internalized by itself. Returning to his own thoughts, emotions and behavior patterns, in Rogers' words "change back to himself" and "walk out of the mask", only such a person can give full play to his personal functions. The essence of humanism is to let people understand their own nature, no longer rely on external values, let people re-trust, rely on the process of evaluation of the body to deal with experience, eliminate the values imposed on him by internalization through the internal environment, so that people can Express your thoughts and feelings freely, decide your own behavior by your own will, master your own destiny, repair the damaged self-realization potential, and promote the healthy development of personality.

3. Contributions and Limitations of Humanistic Psychology in the Development of Psychology

Opposes the psychoanalytic school that only regards sick people as the research object and regards humans as instinctual victims. It also opposes the behaviorist school that regards people as physical and chemical objects. It advocates research on issues that are meaningful to human progress and care about human values and dignity.

It is important to ignore the constraints and influences of the times and social environment on human innate potential.

Functional psychology

Functional psychology in a broad sense began in the middle of the 1850s and has gone through a long historical period, including intentional psychology, Wurzburg school, Geneva school, behaviorism, and Columbia functionalism school. The narrow sense of functionalist psychology school mainly refers to the Chicago functionalist school of psychology (pragmatic psychology school) in the United States. Appeared around the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.

Zeitgeist

Since the advent of Darwin's theory of evolution in 1859, religion and theology have suffered a fatal blow. James and Dewey combined subjective idealism, utilitarian philosophy, and empirical critical theory, and used Darwin's theory of evolution to create a set of pragmatic philosophy. Its basic view is that "existence is useful". Without the objective measure of truth, the only criterion is success.

The Contributions and Limitations of Functionalist Psychology in the Development of Psychology

Emphasize the adaptation and function of psychological phenomena to the objective environment, not limited to the study of conscious experience.

Concerned about the efficacy and application of psychology in various fields and to improve the research methods of psychology.

Geneva School of Psychology

The Geneva School, also known as the Piaget School of Psychology, was founded and led by Piaget, a professor, distinguished psychologist and philosopher at the University of Geneva, Switzerland. Influenced by Kant.

Zeitgeist

Open concept. Compatible and needed spirit.

The Contributions and Limitations of the Geneva School in the Development of Psychology

Fusion and development of psychological schools. Child psychology.

Western scholars regarded Piaget, Pavlov and Freud together as the three giants of contemporary psychology.

Cognitive Psychology

In the 1860s, content psychology was born in Germany. The main representatives of the content psychology school are Fichner and Font.

Fechner (1801-1887)

Fechner

Psychophysics is a rigorous science of functional or interdependent relationships between mind and body or external stimuli and psychological phenomena. This is an independent discipline between psychology and physics. Fichner was inspired by He'er Barth, who believed that psychology was measurable. After many experiments and derivations, he summarized the relationship between sensory intensity and stimulus intensity as the following formula: S = C * log (R / R0), where S-sensory intensity; C- applies to each sense in different senses Constant; R-stimulus intensity; R0-stimulus intensity at the threshold.

This formula shows that the effect of the stimulus is not absolute, but rather the strength of the existing sensation. In the study of psychophysics, Fichner has created three methods of psychological measurement: the least noticeable difference method, the positive error method and the mean difference method. Fichner brought quantitative methods of physics to psychology, and provided tools for later experimental research in psychology. From the historical perspective of the development of modern psychology, Fichner should be considered as one of the main founders of modern western psychology. His psychophysics has laid a foundation for the establishment of Fonte psychology.

Feng Te (1832-1920) was one of the founders of modern psychology. His name is directly related to the independence of psychology and the establishment of experimental (content) psychology in the history of psychology.

Cognitive Psychology and Constructivism

Founded in the United States nearly 20 years after the formation of the content psychology school, the creative psychology school was established by Tiechenner, the most loyal student of Font, in the United States. It is the inheritance and further development of content psychology. However, the constructivist psychology school is by no means equivalent to the content psychology school. There are differences in the time and place of the two, as well as the research methods and specific content.

The constructivist psychology school has an important relationship with Tiechenner's personal efforts. And declined after the death of Tichenna. And developed in the debate with the functionalist school of psychology.

Zeitgeist

A hundred schools of thought contend. Germany has in fact become the center of world psychology research at that time.

Controversy between functional and constructivist psychology

Of the constructivist psychology school, only Tiechener has always adhered to the obvious tradition. He is a determined and controversial scholar. In 1927, Tiechenner died of a brain tumor, and the argument gradually subsided.

The Contributions and Limitations of Constructivist Psychology in the Development of Psychology

Tectonics is the first faction in the history of psychology to systematically study psychological problems using experimental methods. Under their demonstration and advocacy, Western psychological experimental research at that time was rapidly spread and developed.

The theoretical basis is pure empiricism.

Think of psychology as a pure science, only studying the psychological content itself, studying its actual existence, and not discussing its meaning and function. So extremely narrow.

Cognitive Psychology

Floyd

From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the pace of work and life caused by socialized production accelerated, and people were too nervous. People's material life has also improved to some extent, and spiritual comfort has become a need.

Erikson's eight-stage theory of personality development

This is an important theory of the occurrence and development of self-awareness.

EHErikson (1902)

Erikson

Is a well-known American psychiatrist, the representative of the new psychoanalysis. He pointed out that the development of human self-awareness lasts for a lifetime. He divided the process of the formation and development of self-awareness into eight stages. The order of these eight stages is determined by heredity, but whether each stage can be successfully passed is by It depends on the environment, so this theory can be called "psychosocial" stage theory. Every stage cannot be ignored.

Erikson's theory of lifelong development of personality provides theoretical basis and educational content for education at different ages. Educational errors at any age will cause obstacles to a person's lifelong development. It also tells everyone why you are like this, which of your psychological qualities are positive, which are negative, and at what ages, which give you the basis for reflection.

Infant (0 ~ 1.5 years): psychological conflict between basic trust and distrust

At this time, don't think that the baby is an irrational little animal, as long as you are full and don't cry, this is very wrong. This is a period of psychological conflict between basic trust and distrust, because during this period the child starts to know people. When the child is crying or hungry, the presence of parents is an important issue to build trust. Trust forms the quality of "hope" in personality, and it plays a role in strengthening self. Trustworthy children dare to hope, have ideals, and have strong future orientation. On the other hand, I dare not hope, always worrying that my needs are not met. Eriksson defines hope as: "a lasting belief in the fulfillment of one's wishes, a rebellion against the forces of darkness and the birth of life."

Childhood (1.5 to 3 years): conflict between autonomy and shyness and doubt

During this period, children acquired a large number of skills, such as crawling, walking, and speaking. More importantly, they learned how to persist or give up, which means that children begin to "willingly" decide what to do or not to do. At this time, the conflict between parents and children is very fierce, that is, the emergence of the first period of resistance. On the one hand, parents must assume the task of controlling children's behavior to meet social norms, that is, develop good habits, such as training children to urinate, Make them feel ashamed of dirty toilets, train them to eat on time, save food, etc. On the other hand, children have developed a sense of autonomy, and they insist on their own way of eating and excreting, so it is not easy to train good habits. . At this time, children will repeatedly use "I," "we," and "no" to resist outside control, and parents must not let it go and let it go, which will be detrimental to children's socialization. Conversely, if it is too severe, it will hurt children's sense of autonomy and self-control. If parents protect or punish children improperly, children become skeptical and feel shy. Therefore, grasping the question of "degree" is conducive to the formation of will quality in the personality of children. Eriksson defines the will as "the determination to freely choose or self-inhibit, despite the inevitable shyness and skepticism."

(3) Early school age (3 to 5 years old): Active conflict with guilt

During this period, if the child's active inquiry behavior is encouraged, the child will form an initiative, which lays the foundation for him to become a responsible and creative person in the future. If adults laugh at young children's original behavior and imagination, young children will gradually lose their self-confidence, which makes them more inclined to live in the narrow circle that others have arranged for them, lacking their own initiative to create a happy life.

When children's sense of initiative exceeds guilt, they have the quality of "purpose". Eriksson defines the purpose as: "a courage to face and pursue worthy goals, this courage is not limited by the fear of failure, guilt and punishment imagined by young children."

During school age (6-12 years), diligence conflicts with inferiority

Children at this stage should be educated in school. Schools are places where children are trained to adapt to society and acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for future life. If they can successfully complete the course of study, they will gain a sense of diligence, which will give them confidence in their future independent life and work tasks. Otherwise, inferiority will occur. In addition, if a child develops an attitude that places too much emphasis on his own work, and treats it otherwise, the life of such a person is sad. Erickson said: "If he regards work as his sole task and what he does as the sole criterion of value, then he may become the most tame and thoughtless slave of his job skills and bosses."

When children's sense of diligence is greater than their sense of inferiority, they will acquire the qualities of "ability". Ericson said: "Ability is not weakened by children's inferiority complex. What is needed to complete the task is the skill and wisdom of free operation."

Adolescence (12-18 years): conflict between self-identity and role confusion

On the one hand, the rise of young people's instinct impulses will cause problems, on the other hand, more importantly, young people are bothered and confused by facing new social requirements and social conflicts. Therefore, the main task of adolescence is to establish a new sense of identity or his own image in the eyes of others, as well as his emotional position in the social collective. The crisis at this stage is chaos.

"This sense of unity is also a kind of increasing self-confidence, an inherent persistence and identity (one's psychological self) formed in past experiences. The feeling in my heart is commensurate, it is clear that this will add a beautiful color to a person's life. " (Erickson, 1963)

Eriksson applied the identity crisis theory to explain social issues such as youth dissatisfaction and crime. He said: If a child feels that his environment deprives him of the possibilities of self-identity in future development, He will resist the social environment with amazing power. In the jungle of human society, without the feeling of identity, there is no existence of himself. Therefore, he would rather be a bad person, or live like a dead person, rather than being a nondescript person, he chooses all these freely.

With self-identity the quality of "loyalty" is formed. Eriksson defines loyalty as: "the ability to insist on the identity that one recognizes, regardless of the inevitable contradictions of the value system."

Early adulthood (18-25 years): Intimate conflict over loneliness

Only young people with strong self-identity dare to risk intimate relationships with others. Because a love relationship with others is the fusion of one's identity with the identity of others. There is self-sacrifice or loss here, and only in this way can you build a truly intimate relationship in love, thus gaining a sense of intimacy, otherwise you will have a sense of loneliness. Erickson defines love as "suppressing the genetic antagonism of the opposite sex and always giving each other."

Adulthood (25-65 years): The conflict between fertility and self-focus

When a person successfully passes through the period of self-identity, he will live a happy and fulfilling life in the years to come. He will have children and care for the reproduction and upbringing of future generations. He believes that fertility has two meanings: birth and childbearing. Even if a person does not have a child, as long as he can care for the child and educate the child, he can have a childbearing feeling. On the other hand, people who do not have a sense of fertility have poor personality and stagnation. They are self-concerned people. They only consider their own needs and interests.

In this period, people not only have children, but also undertake social work. This is a period when one's care and creativity for the next generation is the most vigorous, and people will get the qualities of care and creativity.

Maturity (over 65 years): conflict between self-adjustment and despair

Due to the aging process, the physical strength, mental health and health of the elderly are deteriorating, and they must make corresponding adjustments and adaptations. Therefore, it is called self-adjustment and the psychological conflict of despair.

When old people look back, they may say goodbye to the world with full feelings, or they may die with despair. Self-regulation is a feeling of accepting self and acknowledging reality; a sense of detached wisdom. If a person's self-regulation is greater than despair, he will gain the quality of wisdom, which Erickson defines as: "Treat life and death in a transcendent manner."

The elderly's attitude to death directly affects the formation of the trust of children in the next generation. Therefore, stage 8 and stage 1 are connected end to end, forming a cycle or life cycle.

Erikson pointed out that in each stage of psychosocial development, the personality traits generated after the core issues are resolved include both positive and negative qualities. If the development of positive qualities is maintained in each stage, it is complete The tasks at this stage gradually realize a sound personality, otherwise a psychological and social crisis will occur, emotional disturbances will occur, and a sound personality will be formed.

Time spirit :

Willism. Doctrine of Hedonistic Motivation.

Old psychoanalytic school

Early orthodoxy (emphasis on biological factor 3 as the basis of human spiritual life):

Freud: Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

Jung

Adler

New School (focus on the spiritual culture of society):

Honey

Frome

Sullivan

Contributions and Limitations of Psychoanalytic Psychology in the Development of Psychology

Mixed reputation.

Unconscious and subconscious research scope.