What is Protectionism?

Protectionism (protectionism), that is, the basis of the application of national law is to safeguard national interests; anyone who violates national interests, regardless of their nationality and locality, is subject to investigation by the laws of that country so that it is considered by the country Due punishment. Economic policies aimed at protecting domestic industries in international trade.

By the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, protectionism was no longer suitable for industry.

A universal problem that arises in a country must be related to the system. Many scholars are right to start from the system when studying the causes of local protectionism. However, because the system itself contains many elements, many researchers are caught up in the phenomenon of listing and vortexing one by one as soon as they conduct specific analysis. The system is nothing more than the basic structure formed by the main body's distribution and redistribution of power and interests. Therefore, it is not difficult to find the source of local protectionism by analyzing the basic structure of national and local power and interest distribution under our current system.

Start by analyzing the relationship between local (departmental) interests, overall (central) interests, and the interests of the parties. These three

First of all, the understanding of the distribution of benefits is still in a fairly "extensive" stage, that is, focusing only on the number and size of the bars, and trying to find a simple relationship between size and size, and some even strive to determine the relationship by experience. This is obviously too simplistic. With the continuous progress of society and economy,

Second, there is no way to define the legal boundaries of local interests, and the use of various economic levers is immature. As a result, the boundaries of interests are unclear. Local protectionism takes the opportunity to devour national interests and exclude fair competition from other local legitimate interests. Sometimes even at your own expense

Finally, the legitimate parties' interests are studied as the opposite of local protectionism.

(1) Local protectionism must take the interests of the parties in other places as the object of erosion, otherwise local protectionism will not be formed, so the lawful rights and interests of the parties must be the antagonistic factor of local protectionism.

(2) Local protectionism mainly uses the regional power formed in Chinese history to erode the legitimate rights and interests of other regions, and the interests of the parties are obviously at a regional disadvantage.

(3) The interests of the parties and local protectionism are still at a disadvantage in their status. Local protectionism has various brilliant reasons, and it can be easily swallowed up.

(4) The parties

The above analysis shows that due to the major reform of the country's basic economic system, in the process of the society's in-depth development towards a market economy, due to the diversification of interest subjects and the diversification of interest targets, the relationship between local interests and overall interests has been complicated. The simple proportional relationship of economic management has become the current dynamic equilibrium relationship under the action of market laws, and the moderate state of this dynamic equilibrium has no empirical understanding and therefore cannot be identified from legal principles. The definition of the legal scope of local interests is not achieved overnight. It is far from being a systematic and deterministic norm. Due to the historical formation of regional power and the identity advantages of local governments, there is no restriction on these norms. The infringement of the interests of the disadvantaged parties is inevitable-this is one of the basic causes of local protectionism.

The essence of local protectionism is to intervene in the economy and interfere with power under the driving of interests.

Since local protectionism is born in the land of China, it is bound to be inextricably linked with Chinese culture. The golden mean of Chinese culture and its huge affinity, especially the phenomenon of regional identification and exclusion, are local protectionism. Humanistic environment for survival. There are three main ways in which this cultural environment breeds local protectionism:

The first type: regional and friendly humanistic phenomena originate from the natural phenomenon of animal land occupation. Animal land occupation is always in various ways, such as dropping feces, leaving fur and body odor on rocks or branches, and leaving on the ground. Delineating the site, such as paw prints, and setting off warnings of other animal invasions, is a downright local protectionism. Evolved to the human phenomenon that human beings and their governments form a regional affinity. When the interests inside and outside the domain conflict, the people inside the domain always try to protect the interests within the domain. This is the general manifestation of current local protectionism.

The second category:

The third category: the sense of "helping the world" in traditional culture forces local protectionism. "Serving as an official for the benefit of one party" is a typical reflection of traditional world-saving ideas in today's society. Compared with such a fishy people, grass-roots lives, and power for personal gain, it does say that the officials are responsible for them and High sense of responsibility. However, from the perspective of the rule of law, its one-sidedness is quite obvious. First, it reversed the relationship between "public servants" and "masters", and concealed the role of the people as the masters of the country in the development of regional society with the attitude of a savior. Secondly, it absoluteizes the "benefit" and fails to reflect the various means required to promote social well-being. Because of his saviour status of "benefit", if there is no obvious "achievement" during the term of office, it is tantamount to no official capital. Therefore, measures have been adopted for quick success and immediate benefits. In order to attract foreign investment, various special policies have been introduced, even at the expense of national interests as preferential conditions. Economic behavior ... so varied; starting from the good will that originally benefited one side, it turned to its opposite.

The above-mentioned negative effects of traditional culture first of all have an effect on human ideology and interact with established people (

First, the legal system is not omnipotent, and has its inherent blind spots. For example, aspects that cannot be included in the legal system when no consensus has been reached on disputed matters. It is also a breeding ground for local protectionism. For example, China has no laws or regulations on the production and sale of sex products. This has opened the door for the manufacture and sale of counterfeit and inferior sex products in some places, and even the production of yellow goods. Local umbrellas for law enforcement actions.

Second, there are loopholes in legislation and justice because the rule of law is not long. It has been analyzed earlier that due to the dynamic balance of local and global interests, a moderate state has not been found. Because the boundaries of local interests and global interests are not clear, the central and local authorities have ambiguous boundaries in matters of power, property rights, and financial rights. Defined by specific, clear and authoritative laws, which are all important in the legal system

Diversity of protectionist approaches

Various protectionist measures have become a new feature of international protectionism. Countries around the world have introduced a wide variety of technical barriers to trade, such as safety standards, hygiene standards, packaging labeling standards, information technology standards, environmental standards, labor safety standards, and welfare standards, which have caused great obstacles to the export of our products. In addition, developed countries, through global warming, promote a low-carbon economy worldwide and want to impose carbon tariffs on products with high carbon emissions. The imposition of "carbon tariffs" will increase the export costs of products in some industries in China, thereby weakening the export competitiveness of related products.

From purely trade to political and social spheres

At present, the outlook for the world economy is still uncertain, the economic recovery is repeated, the European debt crisis is escalating, and the unemployment rate in major developed countries remains high. Although the unemployment rate in the United States and the Eurozone has fallen from 10% in 2010, it is still at a high level, which has become a major problem for the US and European governments. The slump in employment conditions will directly hit the consumer confidence of the general public, the lack of domestic consumption in developed economies, and the foundation for economic recovery are also very weak. In this situation, the protectionist sentiment of ordinary people and the government will obviously rise. Under the democratic political system of developed countries, the political and social significance of trade protection generally exceeds its economic significance. ^[2]

Through the analysis of the above three basic aspects, realize that

Protectionism protects tariffs

The most common protectionism in international trade is the protection of tariff policies. By the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, protectionism had not adapted to the needs of the industrial bourgeoisie to expand the import of cheap raw materials in foreign industrial product markets, and was gradually replaced by free trade policies. However, in the later capitalist countries, such as the United States and Germany, in order to protect emerging national industries and resist British competition, they still adopted protectionist trade policies in the late 19th century.

In the era of imperialism, the purpose of implementing protectionism in capitalist countries was to monopolize the domestic market and use it as a base for external expansion. Different from the protectionism implemented by various capitalisms in the period of liberal capitalism, in addition to the continued adoption of various tariff barriers, various non-tariff barrier measures were increasingly adopted to restrict the import of goods. Exports are given various vocabularies and subsidies to encourage exports of domestic goods.

After the Second World War, while the United States built high trade barriers and restricted the import of other countries' goods, it urged others to open its doors to him. After the 1960s, with the strengthening of the economic strength of Japan and the Western European Community, the contradiction between developed countries in competing for the market has become increasingly intense. Of imports. At the same time, the protection policies implemented by the majority of developing countries in order to develop their national economy, protect their markets, and oppose the control and plunder of developed countries have progressive significance.

In the past 20 years, developed countries have shown protectionist tendencies to strictly restrict imports. The main measures to restrict imports are beyond traditional tariff barriers. There are also various legal and administrative measures that directly or indirectly restrict imports. They can be roughly divided into two categories: one is the direct non-tariff barriers, such as the import quota system and the import license. Certificate system. Another type of indirect non-tariff barriers, such as export control, complex customs procedures, strict health, safety and quality standards, etc. The original protectionism has developed into new protectionism.

Protectionist trade protection

Introduction Generally referred to simply as protectionism is an economic strategy to set very high tariffs on imports, limit import quotas, or reduce the amount of imports in order to protect domestic industries from foreign competition. It is the exact opposite of the free trade model, which exempts imported products from tariffs and allows foreign products to integrate with the domestic market without burdening them with heavy taxes on domestic manufacturers.

Protectionism is often associated with mercantilism and import substitution. Mercantilism believes that maintaining a considerable trade surplus is good for a country.

Depending on whether tariffs are levied, there are two branches of protectionism: traditional protectionism (intentional tariffs) and modern protectionism (intentional tariffs).

Two branches

Depending on whether tariffs are imposed, there are two branches of protectionism:

Traditional protectionism (intentional tariffs)

Modern protectionism (unintentional tariffs)

Features

Protectionism has the following characteristics

1. The main means of protection was changed from tariffs to non-tariff measures. A series of resolutions in international trade and tariff negotiations have greatly reduced the overall level of tariffs, so countries have adopted non-tariff measures to promote protectionist policies. These measures are flexible, hidden and restrictive, and more than half of the total world trade is subject to various non-tariff restrictions;

2. The protection policy is increasingly targeted at products, such as the reduction and reduction of restrictions on industrial products, but the protection of agricultural products is rarely loosened, and the restrictions on different commodities in industrial products are also very different;

3. The distinction between countries and regions targeted by protection policies has been strengthened. Generally speaking, one country has always strengthened protectionist policies against its direct and strong competitors, and has relaxed appropriately to other countries. Most countries in the world have adopted free trade and protectionist policies in accordance with their national conditions and the conditions of their competitors, with a view to protecting the sustainable development of their economies and enhancing their international competitiveness.

Protectionist british trade protection

In 1660, Britain promulgated the "Navigation Regulations" to combat the advantages of Dutch international shipping. From 1690 to 1704, in order to increase government revenue and retaliate against France's protectionist policies during the same period, British import tariffs increased fourfold. The Wool Act of 1699 prohibited colonies from selling wool and wool products to the British mainland; the Cap Making Act of 1732 prohibited colonies from selling hats to the British mainland; in 1720, the British Parliament passed a bill prohibiting the import and use of Indian cotton. The Iron Smelting Act of 1750 prohibited the manufacture of iron products in North America. It was not until the mid-eighteenth century that Britain promoted free trade again. ^[3-4]