What Is a Learning Theory?

Learning theory is referred to as "learning theory". Various doctrines that explain the nature, process, and factors that influence learning in humans and animals. Psychologists put forward many learning theories from different viewpoints, using different methods, and according to different experimental data. Generally divided into two major theoretical systems: stimulus-response (SR) theory and cognitive theory. Stimulation-response theory, also known as associativeism (or behaviorism), is a theoretical system inherited from the British School of Psychology, and is philosophically influenced by Locke's empiricism. This school of theory generally regards learning as the establishment of a connection between stimulus and response or the formation of a habit, and believes that learning is a spontaneous process of "try and error" (referred to as trial and error). ^[1]

Learning theory

Learning theory is referred to as "learning theory". Various doctrines that explain the nature, process, and factors that influence learning in humans and animals. Psychologists put forward many learning theories from different viewpoints, using different methods, and according to different experimental data. Generally divided into two major theoretical systems: stimulus-response (SR) theory and cognitive theory. Stimulation-response theory, also known as associativeism (or behaviorism), is a theoretical system inherited from the British School of Psychology, and is philosophically influenced by Locke's empiricism. This school of theory generally regards learning as the establishment of a connection between stimulus and response or the formation of a habit, and believes that learning is a spontaneous process of "try and error" (referred to as trial and error). ^[1]

How does learning take place, what are the rules, and how does learning take place? In the past century, educators and educational psychologists have conducted various researches on these issues from different angles and in different ways, trying to answer these questions, and thus formed various learning theories.

The theory of connected learning believes that all learning is through the action of conditions to stimulate the process of establishing a direct connection between S and response R. "Reinforcement" plays an important role in the establishment of the stimulus-response connection. In the stimulus-response connection, the individual learns habits, and habits are the result of repeated practice and reinforcement. Once a habit is formed, as long as the original or similar stimulating situation appears, the learned habit response will automatically appear.

Thorndike's Attempt-Error Doctrine

American positivist psychologist Thorndike used scientific experiments to study the laws of learning and proposed the famous theory of connection.

Thorndike's subject was a hungry cat who was free to move. He put the cat into the cage, and then put fish, meat and other food that the cat can see outside the cage. There is a special device in the cage. As soon as the cat steps on the pedal in the cage, he can open the cage latch and eat the food. . After the cat was put in, it jumped up and down in the cage and accidentally touched the mechanism, so it came out naturally and ate the food. Thorndike recorded the time it took the cat to escape the cage, then put it back in and tried again. Thorndike carefully recorded the time it took the cat to escape from the cage each time, and he found that as the number of experiments increased, the time it took for the cat to escape from the cage continued to decrease. In the end, the cat started the mechanism almost as soon as it was put into the cage, that is, the cat learned to open the latch.

Through this experiment, Thorndike believes that the so-called learning is that animals (including humans) continuously try to form a stimulus-response connection, thereby continuously reducing the error process. He called his point of view trial and error. Thorndike has derived three main learning laws based on his own experimental research.

(1) The law of preparation. Before entering a certain learning activity, if the learner has prepared the preparatory response (including physical and psychological) related to the corresponding learning activity, the learner can master the content of learning more freely.

(2) Practice the law. For learners who have formed some kind of connection, repeating the response correctly in practice will effectively strengthen the connection. Therefore, for elementary school teachers, it is necessary to pay attention to the necessary repetition in practice. In addition, Thandek also attaches great importance to the feedback in the practice. He believes that the repetition of simple machinery will not cause learning to progress, and telling the learner to practice the correct or wrong information will help the learner to continuously correct his learning content during the study.

(3) Law of effects. The positive or negative feedback that learners receive during the learning process can strengthen or weaken the connection that the learner has formed in the mind. The law of effect is the most important law of learning. Thorndike believes that after a learner learns a certain kind of knowledge, a connection is established between a certain result and a response. If the learner encounters a stimulus or event that makes him feel happy, then the connection will be strengthened, and vice versa Weaken. He pointed out that it was particularly important that teachers try to get students to enjoy satisfactory learning results.

Pavlov's classic conditioning

Pavlov, a well-known Russian physiologist, proposed a well-known conditioned reflex by using dogs as experimental subjects.

(1) Keep and fade. Pavlov found that after the animals established conditional reflexes, the bells and unconditional stimuli (food) would continue to appear at the same time, and the dog's conditioned reflex behavior (saliva secretion) would continue. However, when the conditional stimulus (bell) appears without corresponding food for many times, the saliva secretion of the dog will decrease with the increase of the number of experiments, which is the response subsided. In teaching, sometimes teachers' timely praise will promote students to form a certain good behavior temporarily, but if after some time, when students show good behavior habits in daily life without being praised by teachers, this behavior is very It may fade over time.

(2) Differentiation and generalization. After a certain condition is formed, the phenomenon that the organism responds to other stimuli similar to the condition reflector is called generalization. For example, children who have just started to learn Chinese characters cannot distinguish "wei" and "last", or "day" and "say". The differentiation is that the organism's response to the conditional stimulus is further refined, that is, the target stimulus is strengthened and retained, and the unconditioned stimulus is subsided. Like in

Cognitive learning theory holds that learning does not passively form stimulus-response (S-R) connections under the domination of the external environment, but actively constructs cognitive structures within the mind; learning does not form reaction habits through practice and reinforcement, but Expectation is obtained through insight and understanding; the organism's current learning depends on his original cognitive structure and current stimulating situation, and learning is guided by the subject's expectations, not controlled by habits.

Gagne's Information Processing Theory

In 1974, Gagne used the idea of computer simulation, insisted on using the information processing perspective of contemporary cognitive psychology to explain the learning process, and demonstrated the information flow in the learning process. Figure 2-3 is a flow chart of information processing for learning and memory as explained by Gagne.

Information Processing Model for Learning and Memory

Gagne believes that in any teaching communication system, a "message" is issued by a "source", which is encoded and transmitted through a "channel", and then decoded and restored to a "message" and received by a "sink". This model presents the internal structure of human learning and the processing completed by each structure. It is a serialized structure that rationally reconfigures and adjusts teaching resources that affect learning results. In this information flow, Gagne mainly emphasized the following points.

(1) Learning is a program by which learners ingest information. Learners receive stimuli from the environment to activate the receptors, which is the first step in learning. Sperling et al. (Experimental Research) proved that the sensory information characterization components from various sensory organs of individuals must be the object of attention in order to continuously affect the human nervous system. After attention, the external information is transformed into stimulus signals, which are selectively perceived by humans, and remain in the human sensory register for 0.25 to 2 seconds; the converted information then enters short-term memory in the form of sound or shape. From the perspective of the learner, the most critical change in information occurs in the encoding after entering short-term memory. After encoding, the information originally stored in sound or shape may immediately be transformed into a speech unit that can be understood and has semantic characteristics. More comprehensive diagrams of sentences and paragraphs, but the retention time of information in short-term memory is also very short, usually between 2.5 and 20 seconds. If the learner repeats it, it will not exceed a minute. . The information of these meaningful organizations enters into the long-term memory system of the learner through repeated learning by the learner, and is permanently saved. After providing certain external clues artificially in the future, this long-saved information is extracted through the reaction generator and effector to react to the external environment.

(2) Learners' spontaneous control and positive expectations are the determinants of the effectiveness of classroom teaching. Although the execution control and expectations are not presented in the information flow program, they are synchronized with the information flow and directly participate in each step of the complete information processing. In fact, the internal processing mechanism of these two learners can affect all information flow stages. . Therefore, in order to learn efficiently, the learner must respond to some stimuli. This means that the learner's sensory organs should be oriented towards the source of the stimulus at the beginning of the learning process and be prepared psychologically; It affects the characteristics of short-term memory and the choice of coding methods in the sensory register. As a special factor, it determines the ability of learners to summarize and solve problems and the quality of learners' thinking at the beginning of learning. Also, as a directional execution process, the expected content can enable learners to generate a continuous learning set, and make their minds choose the information output of each processing stage in the process of aiming at the completion of the goal. Complete the response to the learner's "already in mind" goal.

(3) Feedback is a means to test the effectiveness of teaching. Teaching is a closed loop process, with a starting point and an ending point. The starting point and ending point here point to the classroom context (environment) that is closely related to the learner. In such a situation, a certain evaluation of the teaching results is needed to As an intermediary to improve teaching quality, the evaluation standard of process effect detection makes the teaching process continuously innovate and transcend in a dynamic process. Feedback is to measure and describe the performance and significance of learning by providing a conclusive assessment of the effects of learner behavior. In classroom teaching, students 'observable activity patterns are the direct basis for stating the quality of a class. Students' participation, response, and behavioral performance in the classroom are the original indicators that reflect the effectiveness of classroom teaching.

On the basis of further analysis of learning activities, Gagne divided the teaching related to the above learning process into the following eight stages.

The first is the motivation phase. Gagne believes that in order for effective learning behaviors to take place, learners must have a learning intention, so the preparation for learning is to motivate students' learning motivation by teachers in ways that arouse student interest.

The second is the understanding stage. At this stage, teaching measures should draw the attention of students and provide selective perception. The main purpose is to motivate the learner to direct his or her attention to various stimuli related to his learning goals.

The third is the acquisition stage. The task of teaching at this stage is to support students to transfer the learned information into short-term memory systems, that is, to encode and store the necessary information. Teachers can prompt students with the coding process to help learners adopt better coding strategies to learn knowledge, which is beneficial to the acquisition of information.

The fourth is the maintenance phase. This stage is mainly for the learner to effectively put the information obtained in the acquisition stage into the long-term memory memory. The extent to which the internal process of storing information is affected by teaching methods has not been fully studied. However, Gagne believes that effective learning should properly arrange conditions, such as presenting different stimuli at the same time instead of similar stimuli, because the reduction of mutual interference can indirectly affect the maintenance of information.

The fifth is the recall stage. That is, the information retrieval stage. At this stage, in order for the learned knowledge to be presented in the form of an assignment, clues are essential. Therefore, Gagne advocates that teaching can take the form of providing clues to cause memory recovery. Or take the form of controlling the memory recovery process to ensure that students can find appropriate recovery strategies to use. In addition, he believes that teaching can also include "interval review" and other methods, so that information recovery has the opportunity to occur.

Six is the summary stage. At this stage, the teacher provides the context, allowing the knowledge and skills learned by the student to be transferred in a novel way, and provides clues to apply to situations that have not been encountered before.

Seventh is the operation stage. At this stage, most of the teaching is to provide the opportunity to apply knowledge, so that students show the effect of learning, and prepare for the feedback of the next stage.

Eighth is the feedback stage. At this stage, the student cares about the extent to which his homework meets or approaches his expected standards. If students can get the feedback to complete the expected confirmation, it will have a great impact on the reinforcement learning process.

Kohler's Gestalt-Epiphany

Gaulet psychologist Kauler conducted a series of experimental studies on the problem-solving behavior of chimpanzees between 1913 and 1917, and thus proposed a gestalt that was opposed to Thorndike's attempt-error learning theory, which was prevailing Epiphany. Kohler pointed out: "The real solution behavior usually adopts the process of quick and easy solution, which has the characteristic of sudden separation from the previous behavior." This is the so-called epiphany, and the essence of epiphany learning lies in the subject Construct a mental gestalt internally.

Bruner's theory of cognitive structure learning

Bruner's main educational psychology theories are concentrated in the book The Process of Education published in 1960. Bruner's outstanding achievements in educational psychology have been evaluated by a magazine in the United States. He may be the first person to talk about intellectual education to scholars and educators since Dewey. The lofty prestige of academia.

Bruner mainly studies cognitive learning of organisms in perception and thinking. He refers to cognitive structure as the general way in which organisms perceive and generalize the outside world. Bruner always believes that school education and laboratory research on cats, dogs, and mice's behavioral responses after being stimulated are two different things. He emphasized that the main task of school teaching is to actively learner's old cognitive structure Replacement with a new one enables individuals to perceive the world around them in new cognitive ways.

(1) Pay attention to mastering the basic structure of the discipline. Bruner emphasized that "regardless of the subject we choose to teach, we must make students understand the basic structure of the subject." The so-called "basic" means "has both broad and strong applicability". The basic structure of a discipline includes basic concepts, principles, and laws, that is, the "three basics" of teaching each subject.

Bruner's theory of cognitive structure teaching is deeply influenced by Piaget's epistemology. He believes that cognitive structure is formed through assimilation and adaptation and the balance between them. However, he did not fully agree with Piaget. Piaget believed that cognitive structure was developed under the influence of other external forces, while Bruner repeatedly emphasized the external tension of cognitive structure and believed that cognitive structure is an individual. It is a tool for understanding the surrounding world. It can be improved spontaneously in continuous use. The school's teaching work is mainly to help students master the knowledge of basic disciplines, and use this as an assimilation point to complete the update of the knowledge structure and promote them Using new cognitive structures to complete the perception of the surrounding world, this is the process of the growth of the organism's wisdom. Therefore, Bruner advocates teaching the basic structure of the discipline, mainly to allow students to master more general concepts or general principles to facilitate the assimilation and adaptation of subsequent new knowledge.

(2) Promote the formation of effective learning methods. From Bruner's point of view, human beings have the ability to classify different things. In fact, human learning is to incorporate the newly learned content into the psychological framework (or realistic model) formed by previous learning according to different categories of knowledge, which is effective. To form the learner's knowledge system. Bruner believes that the process of human perception is also the process of continuously classifying objective things. Therefore, he advocates that teachers not only provide necessary information in the process of helping learners, but also teach students to master and comprehensively use A method of classifying objective things. He believes that the learner's inquiry is not actually a way to classify various events in the world, but a way to create categories. In the specific learning process, these related categories constitute a coding system. The coding system is a way for people to group and combine what they have learned. It is continuously changing and reorganizing in the continuous learning of human beings.

From Bruner's point of view, knowledge transfer is actually a process in which learners apply the coding system they have already mastered to other new information so as to effectively grasp the new information. Therefore, it is important for educators to objectively understand the learner's existing coding system when teaching new knowledge.

(3) Emphasize early teaching of basic subjects. Bruner has a famous saying- "The basic knowledge of any subject can be taught to anyone of any age in some form", so he advocates decentralizing the basic knowledge to lower grades. He believes that the most basic of any subject Concepts are both simple and powerful. If teachers can teach children in a manner acceptable to children based on the basic concepts of each subject, they can help students reduce the distance between "primary" and "advanced" knowledge and effectively Promote the transfer of knowledge and guide the development of students' early wisdom. He believes that strengthening the early teaching of basic subjects, allowing students to understand the principles of basic subjects, providing children with challenging but appropriate opportunities to move forward step by step, and helping children to learn more advanced knowledge after they are formed early in their studies Assimilation point. Bruner cited examples in physics and mathematics to further illustrate that if children can understand the basic principles of subject learning earlier, it can help them to complete the learning of subject knowledge more easily. The understanding and mastery of the principle is called the avenue to "training transfer". Its significance is not only to help children understand the specific things that their current learning is pointing to, but also "to promote them to understand other similar things they may encounter."

(4) advocate students' discovery learning. The so-called discovery refers to all the ways in which the learner personally acquires knowledge by following his own unique cognitive process. Bruner repeatedly emphasized that teaching is to promote the growth of students' wisdom or cognition. He believes that "the task of educators is to transform knowledge into a form suitable for developing students, to characterize the order of system development, as Models of Instructional Design. " Therefore, he advocated that teachers should use the method of discovery learning in teaching.

There are six steps to follow when using the discovery method: asking and clarifying questions that students are interested in; enabling students to experience a degree of uncertainty about the problem; providing multiple possible hypotheses for solving the problem; assisting students in collecting available assertions Organize students to review relevant materials and draw due conclusions; guide students to use analytical thinking to confirm conclusions.

The reason why Bruner emphasized the importance of attaching importance to students' discovery learning in teaching is that he found the following obvious advantages of discovery learning through comparative research and discovery learning.

First, discovery learning not only emphasizes the storage of learning results, but also emphasizes that learners organize knowledge in a meaningful way during learning, so learners have a higher degree of firmness to knowledge.

Second, discovery learning emphasizes the motivation of learners 'internal learning motivation, and requires learners to explore their own problem-solving models in front of the teaching information provided by teachers. Therefore, practice shows that discovery learning is more likely to stimulate learners' wisdom potential.

Third, discovery learning emphasizes the cultivation of students' intuitive thinking ability. It emphasizes that in the process of learning, learners use hypotheses to infer relationships and apply their own abilities to solve problems or discover new things. Therefore, it is found that learning can effectively improve Learner's ability to find and solve problems.

Fourth, in the process of discovering learning, teachers and students are in a cooperative state. At this time, the students are no longer sitting listeners or spectators. They actively cooperate and invest in the interaction between teaching and learning. New information, which greatly enhances student initiative.

Ossubel's theory of cognitive assimilation

Ausubel is a cognitive psychologist in the United States. His outstanding contribution to educational psychology is concentrated in his formulation of meaningful learning theory. On the basis of criticizing behaviorism simply equating animal psychology with human psychology, he creatively absorbed the cognitive assimilation theory thoughts of Piaget and Bruner equivalent psychologists of the era, and proposed the famous meaningful learning Organizers, etc., and organically unify both learning theory and teaching theory.

(1) Meaningful learning. At the core of Ausubel's learning theory is meaningful learning. He pointed out: "The essence of a meaningful learning process is that the new knowledge represented by the symbol establishes a non-artificial and substantial connection with the appropriate concepts already existing in the learner's cognitive structure." If it is to be valuable, it should be as meaningful as possible. Ausubel divides learning into acceptance learning and discovery learning, mechanical learning and meaning learning, and clarifies the meaning of each type of learning and their relationship to each other. In order to effectively distinguish these four types of learning, Ausubel proposed two criteria for meaningful learning.

First, the learner's newly learned symbols or ideas establish a relationship with the appearance, meaningful symbols, concepts, or propositions in the original knowledge structure. For example, after the learner understands the basic characteristics of mammals, he then compares the characteristics to know Whales also belong to the mammal family.

Second, the connection between new knowledge and the original cognitive structure is based on non-artificial and logical foundations. For example, the relationship between the concept of a quadrangle and the concept of a square in a child's original knowledge system is not artificial. Imposed, it conforms to the general and special relationship.

In addition, on the basis of proposing meaningful learning standards, Osuber further pointed out two major conditions for meaningful learning.

The first is the internal conditions. The learner exhibits an attitude tendency of meaning learning, that is, the learner exhibits a behavioral tendency to actively seek to link the newly learned knowledge with the original knowledge in his own cognitive structure.

The second is the external conditions. The material to be studied must conform to the logic law, which can be consistent with the cognitive structure and cognitive characteristics of the learner, and is within the learner's cognitive vision.

Ausubel proposed three main types of meaningful learning in human existence.

The first is representation learning, which mainly refers to vocabulary learning, that is, learning what a single symbol or a group of symbols means. For example, the word "cat" is meaningless to children who are new to English, but the teacher pointed at the cat many times and said to the child that it was "cat". When the child saw the cat himself, he would say it was "cat". "At this time we can say that the child has gained meaning for the" cat "symbol.

The second is concept learning, which mainly refers to the learner's grasp of common key characteristics of similar things. For example, learners learned the concept of "birds" and learned that the common key characteristics of birds are constant body temperature and feathers throughout their bodies. Children can point out that chickens should also belong to birds. At this time we can say that learners have mastered " "Bird" concept.

The third is propositional learning. Propositional learning must be based on concept learning. It is an activity to learn the relationship between several concepts or grasp the relationship between two (or more) special things. This is the highest level of learning. Learning the relationship between several concepts is called general propositional learning. For example, the area of a rectangle is equal to the length times the width. The area, length, and width here can represent the area, length, and width of any rectangle. The product here is The connection between arbitrary length and width. Learning to grasp the relationship between two (or more than two) special things is called non-summary propositional learning. This kind of learning is just a kind of statement learning. For example, mastering "Wuxi is one of the most economically viable cities in China", here "Wuxi" means a city, and "China's most economically dynamic city" means a special object. The combination of the two states a specific fact.

(2) Assimilation of knowledge. The foundation of Ausubel's learning theory is assimilation. He believes that the process of learning new knowledge by learners is actually a process of interaction between old and new materials. Learners must actively look for stops that can assimilate new knowledge in their original knowledge structure. Assimilation here mainly refers to learning The author incorporates new knowledge into the existing schema, thereby causing changes in the quantity of the schema. Ausubel pointed out that whether learners can obtain new knowledge in their studies depends mainly on whether there are relevant concepts in the cognitive structure of individual students (ie, whether they have assimilation points). Teachers must understand what students already know before teaching new knowledge and carry out teaching activities accordingly.

According to the level of generalization of new and old knowledge and their different relationships, Ausubel proposed three assimilation methods: subordinate learning, superordinate learning, and parallel combined learning.

Subordinate learning (also known as generic learning) mainly means that learners incorporate concepts or propositions at a lower level of generalization into concepts or propositions with a higher level of generalization in their own cognitive structure, so as to master the new learning Related concepts or propositions. According to the magnitude of the impact of new knowledge on existing knowledge, subordinate learning can be divided into two types. One is derived learning, that is, the newly learned knowledge is just an example of a learner's existing concept or proposition or a derivative. For example, after the learner has mastered the basic characteristics of personality psychology, it is not difficult to understand the characteristics of the representative personality in personality psychology. This kind of learning not only gains new knowledge but also confirms or expands the original knowledge. . The other is that when the learner acquires new knowledge that belongs to the original concept or proposition, he further refines the original concept or proposition, making it restricted, modified or expanded. This kind of learning is called related class Learning. For example, learners are already familiar with the proposition that "chlorine can react with iron in the ignited state", and now study the new proposition "bromide can also react with iron in the ignited state". The latter proposition is the same as the previous proposition. The relationship is only related, the latter cannot be derived from the former.

Higher-level learning (also known as collective relations) refers to the further learning of a concept or proposition with a higher level of generalization or tolerance after the learner has mastered several concepts or propositions. For example, learners are familiar with the subordinate concepts of "perception," "memory," and "thinking," and then learn the new concept of "psychological process", which is more generalized. This new concept of higher level of generalization is mainly inductive. It has meaning in the nature of subordinate concepts.

When the newly learned concepts and propositions do not have a subordinate relationship or a superordinate relationship with the concepts or propositions in the original knowledge structure, but a side-by-side relationship, the study at this time can only use side-by-side combined learning. For example, after the students have learned the basic knowledge of psychological processes, they will then learn the relevant knowledge of individual psychology. At this time, the study is parallel and combined learning.

(3) Learning principles and strategies. Ausubel also proposed the principles and strategies of learning based on the theory of meaningful learning and assimilation.

The first is the principle of gradual differentiation. This principle is mainly suitable for subordinate learning. Ausubel believes that when learning new knowledge, it is easier for learners to use deductive methods to differentiate details from known and more general wholes than to use induction to summarize the wholes from known specific details. Some, therefore, when teaching new knowledge, teachers should first teach the most general, most general, and most inclusive concepts or principles, and then gradually differentiate according to specific details.

The second is the principle of comprehensive penetration. This principle is mainly suitable for higher-level learning and side-by-side combined learning. Ausubel advocates that teachers use deductive methods to gradually differentiate new knowledge, and also pay attention to the horizontal connection between knowledge. It is necessary to point out to learners the new and old knowledge. Distinction and connection, to prevent the artificial separation of knowledge caused by the difference in appearance, and to promote the coordination and integration of new and old knowledge.

The third is the principle of sequence consolidation. This principle is mainly for parallel and combined learning. The principle states that new and old knowledge of non-superordinate and non-subordinate relationships can be serialized or procedurized, making the textbook content from shallow to deep and easy to difficult. At the same time, Osuber also pointed out that for the learning of this kind of knowledge, teachers should also ask learners to take corrective and feedback methods to review memories in time to ensure the stability of the original concepts in the cognitive structure and the firm grasp of new knowledge. Sex.

In order to effectively implement these three principles, Osuber proposed a specific advance organizer strategy. Advance organizer means that before presenting a new learning task, the teacher first tells the students some related to the new knowledge, generalized and comprehensive, clearer guidance materials to help students establish assimilation of learning new knowledge Points to effectively promote learners' subordinate learning. Based on the nature of the new knowledge to be learned, Osuber listed two different types of lead organizers. For completely new and unfamiliar new knowledge, he advocates the use of declarative organizers (or declarative organizers), using a more abstract and generalized concept to provide a fixed and available idea for the next study; for new and incompletely new knowledge He advocates the use of a comparative organizer to help students share common points and differences between fresh and old knowledge, and lay the foundation for students to obtain accurate knowledge.

Social learning theory

The American psychologist Bandura accepted the relevant results of cognitive learning theory on the basis of the simple learning model of stimulus-response emphasized by behaviorism, and proposed that learning theory must study the reaction process in the learner's mind. The viewpoint forms a cognitive-behavioral model that integrates the theories of behaviorism and cognitive psychology, and puts forward the basic view of "people learning in society."

Bandura's theory of social learning also has an experiment as a carrier, but the experimental object he uses has changed from animals to humans. His experimental process is divided into two stages. The first stage is to let three students in different classes (A, B, C) watch three videos. Part of the video is the same. They are all one older child in a room. Hit an inflatable toy inside. Then, an adult appeared in the room, and the content of the videos that the students in the three classes watched later was different. The students in the class A saw the adult slap on the child's head dissatisfied a few times to show the child Punishment of this kind of behavior; students in class B saw the adult coming in and touched the child's head affectionately, and seemed to applaud the child for this behavior; students in class C did not give punishment to the child after seeing the adult entering the room , Did not praise the child, but just casually greeted the child to leave the room. After watching the video, the experimenter left the three class students in different classrooms with an inflatable toy inside, and the observer observed the behavioral reaction of the students outside the classroom. As a result, they saw that the students in class B took the initiative to attack Toys are the most frequent, C is the second, and A is the least.

Bandura achieved a famous theory of social cognition through this experiment. He believes that the acquisition of children's social behavior is mainly accomplished by observing and imitating the behavior of important people in real life. And Bandura believes that any organism's observation and learning process occurs under the interaction of individuals, environment and behavior. Behavior and environment can be changed through specific organizations. The impact depends on the nature of the environment and behavior at the time.

Bandura divides the process of children's observational learning into four stages. (1) Attention stage. The organism observes the characteristics of his environment and notices clues that he can perceive. Generally speaking, children are more inclined to choose objects that are similar to their own conditions or recognized by him as excellent, authoritative, and affirmed as the objects of perception. (2) Holding phase. The organism remembers the behavior of the example he has observed in the attention stage through two representation systems: appearance and speech, and stores it in his own information processing system by means of speech coding. (3) Copying phase. The organism extracts from its own information processing system the relevant behaviors learned and remembered from the example scenario, and imitates them in a specific environment. This is an incomplete, fragmented, and rough behavior that the organism learns by observing and learning. It is made up by self-practice, and finally an imitated behavior becomes the organism's own proficient skills through the replication process. (4) Motivation stage. Organisms have basically mastered the relevant behaviors of role models through the first three stages, but in real life, individuals do not necessarily follow their example actions in any situation. Bandura believes that this is mainly due to " Opportunity "or" conditions "are immature, and the maturity and otherwise of" opportunity "or" conditions "mainly depend on how much the outside world strengthens this behavior.

According to Bandura's understanding, there are three ways to strengthen the behavior of organisms: first, direct reinforcement, that is, on the spot, positive or negative stimulation of the behavioral response made by the learner; The results obtained after this behavior determine their behavioral direction. For example, the students in Class B in the experiment were praised by adults after seeing the children attacking the inflatable toy in the video, so they decided to take the same behavior as the child in the video. Deal with similar things encountered in life; the third is self-reinforcement, which refers to the child's positive or negative reinforcement of his behavioral performance in accordance with the standards of behavioral judgments passed on by the society and the individual's own understanding. Self-reinforcement refers to your own expectations and goals. For example, in a skipping competition, one student jumped over 150 times and was very happy, while another student with the same grade was mourning.

Constructivist learning theory

In the past two decades, with the rapid development of computer and Internet education applications, a revolution is taking place in educational psychology. People call it differently, but more often call it constructivist learning. Theory (Slavin, 1994). Objectively speaking, so far the theory system of constructivism is still in the process of development and has not yet matured. Therefore, we can only try to briefly summarize and summarize its main points. Student view

Constructivism emphasizes that learners construct reality based on their own experience, or at least explain it. MC Wittrock (1931) believes: "The learning process does not begin with the sensory experience itself, it begins with selective attention to the sensory experience. Learning and understanding of any subject always involves the learner The cognitive structure of the learner always understands and constructs new knowledge or information based on his own experience, including informal learning before formal learning and daily concepts before learning scientific concepts. On the one hand, construction is about new information. The construction of meaning also includes the transformation and reorganization of the original experience. "Therefore, they pay more attention to how to build knowledge based on the original experience, psychological structure and beliefs, and emphasize the initiative, sociality, and context of learning .

Constructivism emphasizes that the original knowledge and experience of learners should be used as the growth point of new knowledge, and guide learners to grow new knowledge and experience from the original knowledge and experience. They don't think that learners enter the classroom with their heads empty. They have created a wealth of experiences with their own minds in all forms of learning. Once the learning problem is presented to them, the learner will form an explanation of the problem based on their past experience and rely on their cognitive ability. Because the learner's experience and belief in experience are different, the learner's The understanding is also different. Therefore, the well-known humanistic psychologist GAKelley (1905-1967) pointed out: "First, the personal construction is constantly developing, changing and improving, and can be innovated and continuously improved. Second, the personal construction varies from person to person. In his opinion, reality is a reality that everyone understands and perceives, and different people will react differently in the face of the same reality. Third, while studying the overall structure of personality, you cannot abandon its components At the end, we should strive to achieve the organic unification of the whole and the part, form and content. Fourth, when people always use the existing construction to anticipate future events, they will inevitably encounter some difficulties and troubles, new information The harmony element needs to be added to the original construction. Fifth, it is not easy for a person to obtain a construction system that is very consistent with reality, and it must go through a lot of exploration and trial and error. "

Teaching is not the transfer of knowledge, but the processing and transformation of knowledge. Teachers are not merely the presenters of knowledge, nor are they a symbol of knowledge authority. Teachers should pay attention to students' own understanding of various phenomena, listen to their views, think about the origin of these ideas, and use this as a guide to guide students to enrich or adjust their explanations. Therefore, teachers and students, students and students need to jointly explore certain issues, and exchange and question each other in the process of exploration, understand each other's ideas, and guide learners to grow new knowledge from the original knowledge and experience experience. Learners should strive to construct the basic concepts and thinking forms that form their own intelligence through their own activities. Teacher view

The teacher's role should be a loyal supporter of student construction knowledge, a senior partner or collaborator in student learning. Although constructivism attaches great importance to the self-development of individuals, it does not deny the external influence of teachers. It believes that teachers should provide students with complex real problems. Teachers must not only develop or discover these problems, but also recognize how many complex problems they have. This answer motivates students to have multiple perspectives on problem solving. Teachers must provide students with metacognitive tools and psychological measurement tools, develop students' critical cognitive processing strategies, and build their own mental models of knowledge and understanding, and help them acquire the knowledge, skills and strategies needed to meet various challenges, and develop Become independent and control your own learning habits, so that learners can become independent thinkers and independent problem solvers. In specific teaching, teachers should clearly understand the teaching goals and understand that teaching is a process of gradually reducing external control and increasing student self-control learning.

Teachers must be concerned about the nature of learning, and what learners learn, how to learn and how effective they are. They must understand what learning effects are required of learners. Constructivist teaching requires teachers to bear more teaching responsibilities than traditional teaching. Teachers should pay attention to the recent development zone proposed by Vygotsky and provide some guidance for students. The teacher is not a simple presenter of knowledge, but a guide who constantly encourages students to enrich and adjust their understanding. To this end, teachers must create a good learning environment in teaching practice. Students can start their learning in such an environment through experiments, independent inquiry, and cooperative learning.

Teachers should be active helpers and guides for students to construct knowledge. In the process of constructing meaning, teachers should ask students to actively collect and analyze relevant information, put forward various hypotheses on the problems they have learned, and try to verify them. Be good at enabling students to connect the current learning content as much as possible with their existing knowledge and experience, and think carefully about this connection. In order to make meaning construction more effective, teachers should organize collaborative learning under the possible conditions, and ask appropriate questions to arouse students 'thinking and discussion. In the discussion, try to deepen the questions step by step to deepen the students' understanding of what they have learned. Understanding; to inspire students to discover the laws themselves, to correct and supplement erroneous or one-sided understanding, and to guide the collaborative learning process to develop in a direction conducive to the construction of meaning. By creating contexts that meet the requirements of teaching content and providing clues between the old and new knowledge, students 'interest in learning is stimulated, and students' motivation is stimulated and maintained.

Humanistic learning theory

Humanism is an important trend of education that appeared in the United States in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The main representatives are Maslow (A. Maslow, 1908-1970), Rogers (CRRogers, 1902-1987), Kelly et al. These psychologists are opposed to applying the findings of rats, pigeons, cats, and monkeys to human learning, and advocate a case study approach. The main points of humanistic psychology are: (1) the object of psychological research is "healthy people"; (2) growth and development are human instincts; (3) people have the right to actively and creatively make choices (4) Emotional experience is very important in human nature. The theory of humanistic learning based on modern humanistic psychology includes the following views.

Humanistic teaching purpose

Humanism believes that: human nature is good in nature, born with good roots, as long as the acquired environment is appropriate, it will grow naturally; any behaviors manifested by humans are not caused or determined by external stimuli, Autonomous and comprehensive choices made based on the parties' own emotions and wishes; human learning is the full development of personal potential and the development of personality. Maslow pointed out that the nature of learning is the development of human potential, especially the potential to become a real person; learning must meet the most basic needs of human beings, and emphasize the development of learners' self-realization needs; the socialization of human beings The process and the individual process are completely unified. Therefore, many humanistic educators believe that the fundamental goal of education is to help develop human individuality, help students recognize that they are unique human beings, and ultimately help students realize their potential. Humanists emphasize that school teachers should focus on helping students to clarify the learning goals and content of learning, create a good psychological atmosphere that can promote student learning, and ensure that students are arranged by teachers in a situation full of satisfaction and security. Appropriate learning activities, discover the value and significance of learning content, so that learners become fully developed people.

Demonstrate the subject's view of the teaching process

Humanism believes that in the teaching process, "student-centered" should be taken, which is an inevitable product of its "self-realization" educational purpose. Teaching is centered on the learner, so that students become the real subject of learning. Maslow believes that healthy children are willing to develop and move forward, to improve their skills and capabilities, and to increase their strength. Humanism emphasizes the importance of studying the inner world of students' cognition, emotions, interests, motivations, and potentials in the process of education and teaching. It respects the independent personality of each student, protects the self-esteem of the students, and helps each student fully tap their own potential. , Develop personality and realize their own value, and try to prove: "External learning requirements are consistent with the growth trend of everyone, and learning can bring a source of instant entertainment and excitement, rather than as a competition or guarantee for others. Human status and tools in the future society, the means and purpose of learning should be unified. At the same time, we believe that everyone has innate potentials such as friendship, knowledge, and creativity. These potentials must be realized. Human self-realization is human. A dynamic and forming process in which the potential of human beings is continuously exerted. The main function of education is to create the best conditions to promote everyone to the best state they can, and to help individuals find that they are more in harmony with his true self. Learning content and methods provide a good atmosphere for learning and growth. "Therefore, In the teaching process, teachers should pay special attention to the emotional experience of students. They should understand the learning process and learning content from the perspective of the students, help students understand the meaning of learning, establish a connection between the learning content and the individual learners, and guide the students. Within a certain range, you can choose the learning materials by yourself, inspire students to develop learning tendency from their self-disposition, cultivate students' spontaneous and conscious learning habits, and realize meaningful learning in a real sense.